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Academy  of  Applied  Osteopathy 


COLLEGE    OF    OSTEOPATHIC    PHYSICIANS 
AND  SURGEONS  •    LOS  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA 


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FUNDAMENTALS    OF   CHILD   STUDY 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NSW  YORK  •    BOSTON  •    CHICAGO  •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


/FUNDAMENTALS    OF 
CHILD  STUDY    "? 

A  DISCUSSION  OF  INSTINCTS  AND  OTHER 

FACTORS   IN   HUMAN   DEVELOPMENT 

WITH  PRACTICAL  APPLICATIONS 


BY 

EDWIN   A.   KIRKPATRICK,   B.S.,  M.Ph. 

AUTHOR   OF   '^INDUCTIVE  PSYCHOLOGY" 


NEW  EDITION,   REVISED 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1922 

All  rigku  reftrved 


\WSI  Ob 

n'7 


Copyright,  1903, 1907, 1917, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  August,  i9lfi 


NoilDool!  $re00 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


TO    MY    LAMENTED    FRIEND 

LOUIS    H.   GALBREATH 

WHOSE   GENEROUS   AND   GENIAL   PERSONALITY   HAS   GLADDENED 
AND    ENNOBLED    MANY   LIVES,   AND    WHOSE    BROAD    VIEWS, 
STIMULATING     PRESENCE,     AND     SUGGESTIVE     CONVER- 
SATIONS   HAVE    OFTEN     INSPIRED    AND    DIRECTED 
MY  THOUGHT  AND  WORK  AS  AN  INDIVIDUAL 
AND    AN     EDUCATOR,    THIS    BOOK     IS 
AFFECTIONATELY   DEDICATED 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  an  attempt  to  present,  in  an  organized  form,  an 
outline  of  the  new  science  of  child  study  for  investigators,  stu- 
dents, teachers,  and  parents.     It  is  the  fruit  of  fourteen  years' 
^  experience  in  studying  and  teaching  child  study,  and  of  seven 
years'  experience  as  a  father.     Most  of  the  work  has  been  pre- 
sented successfully,  in  nearly  its  present  form,  to  normal  students. 
The  great  task  of  the  author  has  been  to  decide  what  to  leave 
out  of  the  book.     Many  paragraphs  might  easily  have  been 
expanded  into  chapters.     It  was  the  original  intention  to  sum- 
marize all  the  principal  child  study  investigations  that  have  been 
made.    Lack  of  space  and  the  fact  that  much  of  the  literature 
of  child  study  is  in  the  nature  of  preliminary  studies  likely  to  be 
>    superseded  by  later  investigations,  caused  this  plan  to  be  aban- 
-   doned ;   hence  only  a  few  specific  facts  and  figures  are  quoted, 
while  prominence  is  given  to  the  foundations  of  child  study  in 
other  sciences,  and  to  the  more  general,  permanent,  and  practical 
3   truths  thus  far  revealed  by  students  of  children. 

The  treatment  of  each  topic  is,  in  a  way,  complete  in  itself, 
I  though  related  to  every  other  and  intended  to  be  worked  out 
^  more  completely  by  reading,  observation,  experiment,  and  dis- 
cussion, so  far  as  time  will  permit.  To  aid  readers  and  students 
in  assimilating  and  supplementing  the  text,  exercises  and  refer- 
ences are  given  at  the  close  of  each  chapter.  In  class  work  the 
recitation  periods  may  well  be  taken  up  largely  in  discussions  of 
these  exercises  and  in  reports  of  reading,  though  if  preferred  they 
may  be  ignored  and  the  text  alone  studied  and  recited.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  plan  of  the  book  will  adapt  itself  to  the  use  of 
intelligent  parents  and  to  classes  in  normal  schools  and  univer- 

vii 


24118 


viii  PREFACE 

sities,  with  varying  preparation  and  amount  of  time  to  devote 
to  the  subject.  Many  parents  will  prefer  to  begin  with  chapter 
five  and  to  omit  chapter  fourteen  and  perhaps  some  of  the  chap- 
ters that  follow. 

Acknowledgments  are  due  to  many  earnest  students  of  chil- 
dren, especially  to  G.  Stanley  Hall,  the  father  of  all  child  study 
in  America ;  to  J.  Mark  Baldwin,  who  has  given  us  a  theory  of 
organic  development ;  to  Lloyd  Morgan,  who  has  described  in- 
stincts and  habits  with  such  acuteness  and  clearness ;  and  to  Earl 
Barnes,  who  has  so  intelligently  studied  the  effects  of  social 
influences  upon  children ;  also  to  Mr.  J.  F.  Reigart  and  to  my 
wife  for  assisting  with  the  proofs,  and  to  my  friend  Rev.  W.  F. 
Greenman  for  suggestions. 

E.  A.  K. 

FrrcHBURG  Normal  School, 
July,  1903. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION 

The  very  kind  reception  given  the  first  edition  of  this  book 
by  instructors  in  normal  schools  and  universities,  and  by  parents 
and  teachers  in  this  and  other  countries,  has  been  very  gratify- 
ing to  the  author,  who  had  scarcely  dared  hope  that  he  could 
make  the  book  so  acceptable  to  so  many  different  classes  of 
persons. 

This  new  edition  has  given  the  opportunity  to  correct  a  number 
of  errors  in  the  references  at  the  close  of  each  chapter,  to  add 
the  names  of  a  few  new  books  to  the  list  at  the  beginning,  and 
also  to  improve  a  few  sentences  and  paragraphs. 

It  has  not  been  thought  best  to  make  any  radical  revision  at 
the  present  time.  This  will  probably  be  done  a  few  years  later. 
In  the  meantime,  the  author  will  be  glad  to  receive  suggestions 
from  those  who  have  used  the  book  regarding  corrections,  omis- 
sions, or  additions  that  it  is  thought  would  increase  its  usefulness. 

E.  A.  K. 

FrrcHBURG  Normal  School, 
May,  1907. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION 

In  the  thirteen  years  since  this  book  was  first  printed  great 
progress  has  been  made  in  the  details  of  the  sciences  related  to 
the  development  and  training  of  children  but  its  general  outHnes 
and  principles  have  not  been  greatly  modified.  The  advice  of 
many  persons  who  have  used  the  book  as  a  text  in  colleges  and 
normal  schools  or  as  a  guide  to  study  clubs  has  been  sought  and 
kindly  given.  The  author  has  profited  greatly  by  the  suggestions 
he  has  received  and  he  here  publicly  extends  thanks  to  all  who 
have  made  suggestions.  He  could  not  follow  all  of  them  without 
greatly  enlarging  the  book  or  making  it  into  one  of  several  special 
purpose  books.  Judging  from  the  steadily  increasing  use  made 
of  the  former  edition  by  study  clubs  and  general  readers  as  well 
as  by  students  in  universities,  colleges,  and  normal  schools  it 
seemed  best  to  retain  the  characteristics  of  a  moderate  sized 
general  purpose  book. 

One  of  the  most  important  changes  made  is  in  additions  to 
the  bibliography.  Many  of  the  older  references  are,  however, 
retained  as  often  being  more  intelligible  to  beginning  students 
than  the  more  technically  scientific  discussions  of  recent  times. 
The  other  most  important  addition  is  a  chapter  on  Modifica- 
tions of  Native  Endowments  which  shows  in  more  detail 
than  formerly  the  principles  governing  learning  processes.  In 
connection  with  this  change  the  chapter  on  Heredity  is  enlarged 
and  transposed  and  several  topics  in  other  chapters  are  omitted. 
The  chapters  on  Abnormalities  and  on  Classification  of  In- 
stincts have  been  omitted,  though  much  of  their  material  will 
be  found  elsewhere,  while  chapter  seven  has  been  divided. 


xii  PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION 

A  few  persons  may  be  disappointed  that  more  of  the  many 
tables  obtained  from  recent  investigations  are  not  quoted  as 
definite  indications  of  truths  and  as  standards  of  comparison. 
The  author,  however,  feels  that  the  quantitive  results  thus  far 
obtained  are  still  as  a  rule  only  partial  and  tentative.  Moreover, 
they  are  likely  to  be  misleading  if  not  accompanied  by  details 
of  method,  the  giving  of  which,  space  does  not  permit.  Refer- 
ences are  given  to  such  investigations  and  all  students  should,  if 
possible,  make  a  study  of  one  or  more  of  them.  It  is  hoped  that 
the  plan  of  the  new  edition  will  continue  to  be  acceptable  to  the 
classes  of  persons  who  have  hitherto  found  the  book  useful. 

E.  A.  K. 
Nov.  19x6. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Child  Study  Literature xxi 

CHAPTER  I 

NATURE,   SCOPE,   AND  PROBLEMS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Difference  between  Children  and  Adults i 

Origin  of  Child  Study 2 

Period  covered  by  Child  Study 2 

Significance  of  Infancy 3 

Advantages  of  a  Long  Infancy 4 

Human  Infancy  and  Plasticity S 

Inner  and  Outer  Factors  in  Development 7 

The  Problem  to  be  solved 8 

Generality  of  Inner  Forces  of  Development 10 

Exercises  for  Students 11 

Suggestions  for  Reading 11 

CHAPTER  II 

LESS   GENERAL  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  OR  HEREDITY 

General  Truths  of  Heredity 15 

General  Theory  of  Heredity 17 

Mendelism 20 

Eugenics 23 

Social  Heredity .        .        -27 

Exercises  for  Students          . 30 

Suggestions  for  Reading 30 

CHAPTER  III 

PHYSICAL  GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 

General  Phenomena  of  Growth .  '32 

General  Truths  regarding  Growth  of  Children 33 

ziii 


XIV  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Factors  determining  Growth 35 

Growth  of  Parts 37 

Health  and  Growth 38 

Growth  and  Development 39 

Natural  Order  of  Development  in  Relation  to  Exercise       .        .        -41 

Exercises  for  Students 45 

Suggestions  for  Reading 45 

CHAPTER  IV 

NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  THE  SPECIES  —  INSTINCTS 

Kinds  of  Native  Movements 47 

Two  Views  of  Native  Reactions 49 

Instincts  and  Structure 53 

Instincts  and  Consciousness 55 

Conditions  affecting  the  Usefulness  of  Instincts 59 

Fixed  and  Indefinite  Instincts 61 

Continuous,  Transient,  and  Periodic  Instincts 62 

Principles  governing  the  Development  of  Instincts      ....  63 

Causes  of  Differences  in  Individuals  of  the  Same  Species    ...  65 

Classification  of  Instincts 66 

Exercises  for  Students 71 

Suggestions  for  Reading      .        .        .        , 72 

CHAPTER  V 

MODIFICATIONS  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS 

Nurture  and  Development 73 

Instincts  and  Learning 74 

Modes  of  Learning 77 

The  Physiology  of  Learning 81 

The  Psychology  of  Learning  and  of  Efficiency 83 

Maturity,  Learning,  and  Ability          . 87 

Habits 90 

General  and  Special  Training      .        .        .     ; 93 

Fatigue  in  Learning     .        .     '  .        .        .     j 96 

Exercises  for  Students          .     ~  .        .        .  ^_ 99 

References  .        .        .        .    ~  ,       ,       ,  /' 100 


CONTENTS  XV 
CHAPTER  VI 

THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HUMAN  INFANT 

PAGE 

Early  Movements 102 

Increase  in  Connection  between  Movements 104 

Early  Mental  States 106 

Development  of  Voluntary  Control 108 

Learning  to  Walk 115 

Relation  of  Instincts  to  Mental  Activities 118 

Exercises  for  Students 120 

Suggestions  for  Reading 121 

CHAPTER  VII 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUALISTIC  INSTINCT 

Strength  of  the  Instinct 123 

Prominence  in  the  Young 124 

Development  of  the  Individualistic  lustiucts  into  Motives  .  .126 

Individualism  the  Basis  of  Higher  Development  .        .        .        .128 

The  Feeding  Instinct 130 

Fear 130 

The  Fighting  Instinct 135 

Exercises  for  Students 137 

Suggestions  for  Reading 138 

CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   RACIAL  INSTINCT 

Lateness  of  Development 139 

Relation  of  the  Racial  Instinct  to  Other  Impulses  and  Feelings  .        .141 

Right  Development  of  the  Racial  Instinct 142 

Teaching  Sex-hygiene  and  Morals 147 

Suggestions  for  Reading 148 

References 148 

CHAPTER  IX 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  SOCIAL  INSTINCT 

Forms  of  the  Instinct 150 

1.  Gregariousness 150 

2.  Sympathy 151 


XVI 


CONTENTS 


3.  Love  of  Approbation 

4.  Competition  and  Cooperation 

5.  Loyalty  and  Altruism 
Exercises  for  Students 
Suggestions  for  Reading 


PAGS 

154 
ISS 
157 
158 


CHAPTER  X 


I. 
2. 
3. 
4- 

5- 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  —  IMITATION 

Characteristics  of  Imitation  in  Children 160 

Classification  of  Imitative  Acts  of  Children 161 

Reflex  Imitation 161 

Spontaneous  Imitation 161 

Dramatic  Imitation 162 

Volimtary  Imitation 162 

Idealistic  Imitation 163 

Development  of  Imitation 163 

Exercises  for  Students 172 

Suggestions  for  Reading 173 

CHAPTER  XI 

DEVELOPMENT   OF  ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  —  PLAY 

Theory  of  Play 175 

Work,  Play,  and  Amusement 176 

Changes  with  Age  as  regards  Freedom  in  Play 179 

Changes  with  Age  as  regards  Powers  used  in  Play       ....  181 
Changes  with  Age  as  regards  Instincts  involved  in  Play      .        .        .183 

Play  as  a  Factor  in  Education 185 

Exercises  for  Students 189 

Suggestions  for  Reading 190 

CHAPTER  XII 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  —  CURIOSITY 

Function  of  Curiosity 192 

Curiosity,  Attention,  and  Interest 193 

Changes  in  Curiosity  with  Age 196 

Curiosity  and  Education 199 

Exercises  for  Students 202 

Suggestions  for  Reading 202 


CONTENTS 


xvu 


CHAPTER  XIII 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE 


I.   Moral  Instincts 

Preparatory  Stage  of  Moral  Development 
Moral  Training  during  the  Preparatory  Stage 
Transition  Stage  of  Moral  Development 
Moral  Training  in  the  Transition  Stage 

II.   Religious  Instincts 

Preparatory  Stage  of  Religious  Development 
Religious  Training  in  Childhood    . 
The  Period  of  Religious  Awakening 

Exercises  for  Students 

Suggestions  for  Reading 


FAOS 
204 

204 

205 

213 

218 
218 
218 
220 
221 
223 


CHAPTER  XIV 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  INSTINCTS  —  VARIOUS   RESULTANT  INSTINCTS  AND 

FEELINGS 

The  Collecting  Instinct        . 225 

The  Constructive  Instinct 227 

The  Esthetic  Instinct 228 

The  Migratory  Instinct 232 

The  Rhythmic  Instinct 233 

Relation  of  Instinctive  Actions  to  Feelings 233 

Relation  of  Fundamental  Stimuli  to  Feelings 236 

Exercises  for  Students 237 

Suggestions  for  Reading 237 

CHAPTER  XV 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  —  THE   EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT 

Origin,  Nature,  and  Forms 239 

I.  Auditory  Expression 240 

Factors  concerned  in  its  Acquisition 240 

Stages  of  Learning  Oral  Language 243 

Instinctive  Stage 243 

Playful  and  Imitative  Stage 244 

Word-learning  Stage 245 

Sentence-making  Stage 249 


xviii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

n.  Visual  Language 253 

Methods  of  Learning  to  Read 256 

Learning  to  Write 259 

Learning  to  Spell 261 

III.  Drawing 262 

Methods  of  Teaching  Drawing 265 

Exercises  for  Students 267 

Suggestions  for  Reading 268 

CHAPTER  XVI 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT 

General  Order  of  Development 272 

Development  of  Discrimination ,        .  277 

Development  in  Rate  of  Mental  Activity    .        .        .        .        .        .278 

Increase  in  Mental  Grasp    .        , 279 

Development  of  Perception 280 

Development  of  the  Power  to  Image .  284 

Growth  of  Constructive  Imagination 287 

Development  of  Creative  Imagination 289 

Development  of  Memory 291 

Development  of  Concepts 294 

Development  of  Reasoning 296 

Exercises  for  Students 303 

Suggestions  for  Reading 306 

CHAPTER  XVn 

INDIVIDUALITY 

Significance  of  the  Term 310 

Biological  Value  of  Individuality 311 

Commonality  and  Individuality 312 

Factors  Producing  Conmionality  and  Individuality     .        .        .        -314 

Time  of  Greatest  Individuality 315 

General  and  Particular  Truths  regarding  Children  .         .         .316 

Necessity  of  Recognizing  IndividuaUty  in  Children  .        .         -319 

How  Commonality  and  Individuality  may  be  developed     .        .        .321 

Types  of  Individuality 321 

Exercises  for  Students 323 

Suggestions  for  Reading 325 


CONTENTS  xix 
CHAPTER  XVIII 

CHILD  STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS 

Use  of  Truths  Known  and  Acquirable 327 

Observation  and  Incidental  Study 328 

Study  and  Treatment  of  Individual  Children 333 

Observation  and  Treatment  of  Fatigue  and  Nervous  States         .        -335 

Suggestive  Outlines  for  Observation 341 

Rep>orts  and  Records .        .  345 

Tests  and  Standards  in  the  Study  of  Children 349 

Suggestions  for  Reading 356 

Bibliography 359 


CHILD  STUDY  LITERATURE  ^ 

Books  Relating  to  the  First  Three  Years  of  Childhood 

Dearborn  :  Moto-sensory  Development. 
FiTZ :  Problems  of  Babyhood. 
Major  :  First  Steps  in  Mental  Growth. 
Moore  :  Mental  Development  of  a  ChUd. 
Preyer  :  Mind  of  the  Child,  vols.  I  and  II. 

Infant  Mind ;  condensed  from  above. 

Books  Containing  Sympathetic  Observations  and  Practical 
Suggestions 

Abbott  :  On  the  Training  of  Parents. 

Berle  :  The  School  in  the  Home. 

Birney:  Childhood. 

Bruce  :  Psychology  and  Parenthood. 

Cabot  :  Ethics  for  Children. 

Chenery  :  As  the  Twig  is  Bent. 

Davids  :    Notebook  of  an  Adopted  Mother. 

Du  Bois :  Beckoning  of  Little  Hands. 

The  Point  of  Contact. 

Fireside  Child  Study. 
EwALD :  My  Little  Boy. 
Fisher  :  Self  Help. 

A  Montessori  Mother. 
FoRBUSH :  A  Guide  Board  to  Childhood ;  it  contains  annotated  bibliography. 
Gilman:   Concerning  Children. 
Gruenberg  :  Your  Child  To-day  and  To-morrow. 
Harrison  :   Misunderstood  Children. 
HiLLYER :   Child  Training. 
Hogan:  a  Study  of  a  Child. 

1  At  close  of  the  book  will  be  found  a  more  complete  bibliography,  reference  to 
which  is  made  at  the  close  of  each  chapter. 

zzi 


xxii  CHILD  STUDY  LITERATURE 

Hutchinson  :  We  and  Our  ChUdren, 

KiRKPATRiCK :  The  Use  of  Money. 

Malleson  :  Early  Training  of  Children. 

Mangold  :  Problems  of  Child  Welfare. 

McKeever  :  Training  the  Boy. 

Proudfoot  :   Mothers'  Ideals. 

Spiller  :  The  Training  of  the  Child. 

Stableton  :  The  Diary  of  a  Western  Schoolmaster. 

St.  John  :  Stories  and  Moral  Education. 

Signer  :  Natural  Education. 

Urwick  :  The  Child's  Mind,  Its  Growth  and  Training. 

WiGGiN :   Children's  Rights. 

WiLTSE :  The  Place  of  the  Story  in  Early  Education. 

Winterburn  :  From  a  Child's  Standpoint. 

Nursery  Ethics. 
Wood-Allen  :  The  Mother  in  Education. 

Making  the  Best  of  Children. 

Autobiographical  and  Literary  Accounts  of  Children 

Aldrich  :  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy. 

Burnett  :  The  One  I  Knew  Best  of  AIL 

Canton  :  W.  V.,  Her  Book  and  Various  Verses. 

HowELLS :  A  Boy's  Town. 

Keller  :  Story  of  my  Life. 

Laughlin:  Johnnie. 

LoTi :  Romance  of  a  Child. 

Martin  :  Emmy  Lou. 

Meynell  :  The  Children. 

Phillips  :  Just  about  a  Boy. 

Smith  :  Evolution  of  Dodd. 

All  the  Children  of  All  the  People. 
Warjter  :  Being  a  Boy. 
White  :  Court  of  Boyville. 

Scientific  but  not  Severely  Technical  Books 

Adler  :  Moral  Training  of  Children. 
Barnes  :  Studies  in  Education. 
Bolton  :  Principles  of  Education. 


CHILD  STUDY  LITERATURE  XXlii 

Chamberlain  :  The  Child. 

Dawson  :  The  Right  of  the  Child  to  be  Well  Bom. 

DRUiiMOND :  Introduction  to  Child  Study. 

The  Child,  His  Nature  and  His  Nurture. 
Gesell  :  The  Normal  ChUd  and  Primary  Education. 
GODDARD  :  The  KaUikak  Family. 
Hall  :  Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  Education. 
Johnson  :  Education  by  Plays  and  Games. 
JuDD :   Genetic  Psychology  for  Teachers. 
King  :  The  Psychology  of  Child  Development. 

The  High  School  Age. 
KiRKPATRiCK :  The  Individual  in  the  Making. 
Lee:  Play. 
Oppenheim  :  Development  of  the  Child. 

Mental  Growth  and  Control. 
O'Shea  :   Social  Development  and  Education. 
Partridge  :  An  Outline  of  Individual  Study. 

Genetic  Philosophy;  An   Epitome  of  the   Publications  of 
G.  S.  HaU. 
RowE :  The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child. 
Saleebv  :  Parenthood  and  Race  Culture. 
St.  John  :  Child  Nature  and  Nurture. 
Swift  :  Mind  in  the  Making. 

Youth  and  the  Race. 

Learning  and  Doing. 
Sully  :  Psychology  of  Childhood. 
Tanner  :  The  ChUd. 
Tracy  :  The  Psychology  of  Childhood. 
Warner  :  The  Nervous  System  of  the  Child, 

Journals 

I.  Pedagogical  Seminary.    Worcester,  Mass.    Is  devoted  chiefly  to 
genetic  phases  of  child  physiology  and  psychology. 

II.  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology.  Baltimore,  Md.  Is  devoted 
chiefly  to  expeiimental  studies  of  children  and  of  psychological  and  peda- 
gogical tests. 

III.  Psychological   Clinic.    Philadelphia,   Pa.    Is   devoted   chiefly   to 
reports  of  studies  of  exceptional  children. 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

CHAPTER  I 

NATURE,  SCOPE,  AND  PROBLEMS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

DIFFERENCE   BETWEEN   CHILDREN   AND   ADULTS 

Physically  and  mentally,  children  differ  from  adults  in  other 
ways  besides  the  obvious  ones  of  size  and  knowledge.  Physically 
this  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  we  can  form  some  idea  of  the 
age  of  a  person  represented  in  a  picture  or  statue  when  there  is 
nothing  to  show  the  scale  upon  which  it  was  made.  There  must 
therefore  be  peculiarities  of  form  and  proportion  of  parts  at  differ- 
ent ages  upon  which  we  base  our  judgments.  Most  persons, 
however,  who  have  not  had  their  attention  called  to  the  matter 
are  unable  to  state  in  just  what  ways  children  and  adults  differ. 
Some  even  hesitate  regarding  the  most  obvious  differences  in 
relative  size  of  head,  body,  and  limbs,  though  the  ratios  are  ap- 
proximately as  follows :  — 

Height  of  head  of  adult  to  that  of  an  infant 2:1 

Length  of  body  of  adult  to  that  of  an  infant 3:1 

Length  of  arm  of  adult  to  that  of  an  infant 4:1 

Length  of  leg  of  adult  to  that  of  an  infant 5:1 

These  differences  in  proportion  of  parts  are  probably  greater 
than  exist  between  some  adult  animals  and  adult  human  beings. 
They  are  only  the  more  obvious  of  the  many  differences  between 
children  and  adults,  in  proportion  of  parts,  size  of  vital  organs, 
and  physiological  processes  such  as  those  of  circulation,  respira- 
tion, and  digestion. 

B  z 


2  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Mentally,  every  one  recognizes  marked  diflferences  between  the 
mind  of  a  child  and  of  an  adult,  as  is  indicated  by  the  expressions 
"childlike"  and  "childish."  When  questioned  as  to  the  exact 
character  of  these  differences,  most  persons  are  even  more  hazy 
and  indefinite  in  their  answers  than  they  are  regarding  bodily 
differences.  Those  who  have  given  the  subject  most  attention, 
however,  are  sure  that  the  mental  differences  are  greater  than 
the  physical,  though  they  are  less  easily  stated  in  exact  terms. 

ORIGIN    OF   CHILD    STUDY 

This  has  led  to  the  attempt  to  determine  definitely  and  ac- 
curately the  peculiarities  of  childhood  at  various  stages,  and 
thus  we  have  the  beginning  of  a  new  science  —  that  of  Child 
Psychology,  Paidology,  or  Child  Study.  If  children  were 
merely  adults  in  miniature,  there  would  be  no  occasion  for  such 
a  science ;  but  as  we  have  seen,  they  differ  radically  from  adults, 
hence  a  science  of  child  study  has  arisen,  which  is,  in  many  re- 
spects, quite  distinct  from  the  general  sciences  of  physiology  and 
psychology.  Such  a  study  is  necessary  to  the  completion  of 
the  circle  of  the  sciences,  and  it  is  also  indispensable  as  a  basis 
for  the  science  of  education  and  in  efficient  child  welfare  work  of 
all  kinds. 

The  theory  of  evolution  also  has  directed  attention  to  the  devel- 
opment of  children  as  well  as  to  changes  in  plants  and  animals  as 
they  pass  from  the  embryo  to  maturity.  This,  with  the  growing 
interest  in  education  and  in  all  that  pertains  to  child  welfare,  has 
stimulated  the  study  of  the  physical  and  mental  characteristics 
of  children.  Children  have  therefore  become  a  distinct  center  of 
interest. 

PERIOD   COVERED   BY  CHILD   STUDY 

It  is  not  easy  to  say  when  a  boy  or  girl  becomes  a  man  or 
woman.     Even  in  law  there  is  variability;  for  a  man  is  recog- 


NATURE,  SCOPE,  AND   PROBLEMS  OF  CHILD   STUDY        3 

nized  as  earlier  mature  or  competent  for  certain  purposes  than 
he  is  for  others ;  e.g.  he  can  enter  the  army  at  eighteen  and  vote 
at  twenty-one,  but  cannot  hold  the  office  of  President  till  he  is 
thirty-five.  Again,  the  law  recognizes  the  passing  of  the  normal 
adult  stage  by  providing  for  the  retirement  of  officers  after  a 
certain  age.  Old  age,  as  well  as  the  period  before  maturity  is 
reached,  may  therefore  furnish  a  separate  field  for  study. 

Child  study  is  properly  concerned  with  all  the  changes  that 
usually  take  place  in  human  beings  before  they  reach  maturity. 
Most  of  these  changes  occur  before  the  age  of  twenty,  but  some 
may  not  appear  until  ten  or  fifteen  years  later. 

Roughly  speaking,  infancy  and  childhood  last  about  a  dozen 
years,  adolescence  or  the  transition  period  about  the  same, 
vigorous  maturity  about  three  dozen,  and  old  age  or  decadence, 
one  dozen.  Some  powers  mature  and  fail  earlier  and  others  later 
than  at  these  periods.  There  are  also  great  individual  dififer- 
ences  as  to  the  age  at  which  maturity  is  achieved,  and  at  which 
decadence  begins. 

SIGNIFICANCE   OF  INFANCY 

A  fish  has  relatively  little  infancy;  its  form  is  from  the  first 
nearly  that  of  the  adult ;  it  can  do  almost  everything  the  adult 
fish  can  do,  and  it  is  possible  to  teach  it  comparatively  little. 
A  robin  is  helpless  at  birth,  yet  practically  mature  at  two  months. 
A  chicken  does  not  need  to  learn  to  walk  and  take  food.  It 
becomes  independent  in  a  few  weeks  and  completely  mature  in 
less  than  a  year,  though  retaining  considerable  capacity  for  learn- 
ing. The  child  is  helpless  for  months,  dependent  for  years, 
immature  at  least  a  score  of  years,  and  capable  of  learning  for 
three  score.  In  general,  the  animals  that  are  most  helpless  in 
infancy  have  the  longest  period  of  immaturity,  and  keep  longest 
their  plasticity  or  power  of  learning,  are  most  complex,  most 
capable  of  variety  of  sensation  and  movement,  and  most  in- 


4  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

telligent.  In  other  words,  the  longer  the  infancy  of  any  species 
of  animals,  the  greater  its  ultimate  power  and  intelligence. 
This  is  true  as  a  broad  generalization,  but  of  course  there  are 
many  exceptions. 

ADVANTAGES   OF   A   LONG    INFANCY 

Looking  up>on  an  animal  organism  as  a  machine,  the  lower 
animals  are  more  perfect  at  birth  than  the  higher.  They  are 
like  a  complex  "  nickel-in- the-slot "  machine,  which  responds 
in  an  appropriate  way  not  only  to  one,  but  to  several  kinds  of 
stimuh.  The  fish  has  an  almost  unchanging  environment  and 
needs  to  do  only  a  few  things  in  order  to  secure  food  and  avoid 
enemies ;  hence,  its  mechanism  from  the  first  prepares  it  for  most 
of  the  exigencies  of  life,  and  it  need  not  and  can  not  learn  much. 
It  is  sent  out  of  nature's  factory  nearly  ready  to  do  the  hmited 
business  of  life  necessary  for  its  own  preservation.  Higher  ani- 
mals come  into  a  much  more  complex  environment,  each  phase 
of  which  requires  a  different  response ;  hence  infinite  complexity 
of  structure  is  necessary  for  them  to  transact  their  life  business 
successfully. 

Moreover,  the  environment  varies  according  to  the  place  in 
which  the  yoimg  animal  is  bom,  the  season  of  the  year,  and  its 
own  movements ;  hence,  it  is  nearly  as  impossible  to  prepare  a 
higher  animal  by  its  original  structure  for  a  successful  life  as 
it  would  be  to  prepare  a  machine  that  would,  from  a  single  ad- 
justment, perform  with  accuracy  and  despatch  all  the  functions 
of  a  clerk  (including  the  answering  of  customers'  questions). 

A  machine  may  be  constructed  that  will  do  part  of  the  work  of 
a  clerk,  but  not  all,  for  new  situations  arise  which  cannot  be 
provided  for  by  any  fixed  mechanism.  This  is  especially  true 
when  he  changes  from  one  department  to  another,  or  one  kind 
of  business  to  another,  or  adopts  new  and  improved  methods. 
In  a  similar  way  the  higher  animals,  in  order  to  do  their  life  work 


NATURE,  SCOPE,  AND  PROBLEMS  OF  CHILD  STUDY        5 

and  Kve,  must  have  the  power  of  adjusting  themselves  to  the 
environment  into  which  they  are  born,  and  of  adapting  them- 
selves to  changes  in  that  environment.  To  do  the  first,  they 
must  be  incomplete  at  birth  and  capable  of  being  modified  by 
experience  till  they  fit  their  environment;  and  to  do  the 
second  they  must  retain  something  of  their  plasticity  or  ca- 
pacity for  being  modified,  so  that  if  the  environment  changes 
they  can  again  make  the  necessary  adjustment  to  the  new  situ- 
tions. 

Infancy  is,  therefore,  the  period  during  which  the  more  com- 
plex organisms  are  perfected  by  further  internal  development 
and  by  activities  which  prepare  them  to  react  appropriately 
to  the  various  phases  of  their  environment.  In  other  words,  it 
is  the  period  for  developing  the  native  powers  of  the  individ- 
ual and  for  learning  how  to  live  in  the  environment  in  which 
he  finds  himself. 

HUMAN  INFANCY  AND  PLASTICITY 

Man  is  the  most  complex  of  animals  and  also  the  most  capable 
of  preserving  himself  in  diverse  climates  and  conditions  of  life ; 
hence  it  is  not  surprising  to  learn  that  he  is  born  with  the  greatest 
capacity  for  being  modified  to  suit  his  environment.  He  is  less 
mature,  has  fewer  fixed  modes  of  reaction  to  stimuli  than  other 
animals,  and  the  period  of  his  immaturity  lasts  from  five  to  a 
hundred  times  as  long  as  in  others  of  the  higher  animals.  Clearly, 
therefore,  infancy  is  of  vast  significance  in  a  human  being,  and 
a  man's  characteristics  at  various  ages  are  more  largely  due  to 
modifications  produced  by  his  own  and  less  to  race  experiences 
than  is  the  case  with  any  other  animal.  Man  has  more  instincts 
than  any  other  animal,  but  his  instincts  are  all  subject  to  greater 
modification  by  experience.  Plasticity  is  not  only  greater  in 
man,  but  greatest  in  early  life.  The  more  fundamental  physical 
characteristics  of  a  man  are  fixed  at  twenty-five,  and  the  mental 


6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

at  thirty-five ;  yet  plasticity  in  minor  details  is  retained  till  the 
period  of  decadence. 

Not  only  is  the  period  of  infancy  longer  in  man  than  in  animals, 
but  it  is  longer  in  civilized  than  in  savage  people,  and  is  con- 
stantly becoming  longer.  As  life  becomes  more  complex,  more 
special  training  is  needed  before  a  young  man  is  prepared  to 
make  a  living  for  himself.  The  age  of  entering  upon  business 
and  professional  life  is  therefore  from  five  to  ten  years  later  than 
it  was  fifty  years  ago. 

Not  only  is  the  period  of  preparation  for  living  extended,  but 
there  is  more  need  for  the  preservation  of  plasticity  in  every  in- 
dividual as  long  as  possible;  for  the  environment  is  constantly 
changing  with  the  invention  of  new  machinery  and  methods, 
and  advancement  in  knowledge  and  social  relations.  Men  who 
have  not  sufficient  plasticity  to  adapt  themselves  to  these 
changes  quickly  fail  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  The  function 
of  education  in  a  progressive  nation  is  therefore  not  merely  to 
develop  habits  suited  to  present  conditions  of  life,  but  also  to 
preserve  plasticity  and  if  possible  develop  adaptability  that  will 
enable  the  individual  to  fit  himself  to  new  conditions  as  they 
appear. 

In  the  evolution  of  the  race  a  long  period  of  infancy  has  been 
of  great  significance.  The  helplessness  of  children  kept  parents 
together,  and  thus  family  life,  which  is  the  basis  of  all  social  life, 
had  its  beginning.  Moreover,  the  task  of  caring  for  and  train- 
ing children  gives  an  education  that  could  be  achieved  in  no  other 
way,  and  contact  with  such  enigmatic  and  variable  creatures  re- 
news the  youth  of  adults  and  helps  them  to  preserve  their  plas- 
ticity. Not  only  does  man's  superiority  to  animals  depend 
largely  upon  his  longer  infancy,  or,  in  other  words,  upon  his 
greater  plasticity,  but  the  position  of  each  nation  as  a  civilized 
power  and  of  each  individual  in  society  is  also  largely  determined 
by  ability  to  respond  to  new  situations  in  new  ways. 


NATURE,  SCOPE,  AND  PROBLEMS  OF  CHILD  STUDY        7 
INNER  AND   OUTER  FACTORS  IN  DEVELOPMENT 

We  never  know  the  nature  of  a  material  object  until  we  bring 
it  in  contact  with  other  substances  and  with  new  forces.  In 
a  similar  way,  we  do  not  know  the  nature  of  a  child  until  we  have 
observed  his  actions  under  various  conditions.  Not  only  do 
we  not  know  what  the  child  is  until  we  have  observed  his  actions 
under  various  circumstances,  but  he  actually  acquires  new 
characteristics  in  the  presence  of  each  new  person  and  in  the 
performance  of  each  new  action. 

What  a  child  is,  therefore,  at  any  given  time,  is  developed 
from  what  he  was  at  the  beginning,  and  what  he  has  acquired 
by  his  reactions.  What  he  may  be  is  potentially  present  at 
first,  and  can  become  actual  only  after  certain  phases  of  his 
nature  have  been  developed  by  experience.  A  grain  of  com  has 
the  potential  power  of  producing  other  grains  of  corn,  but  it 
cannot  actually  do  so  until  it  has  been  subjected  to  heat  and 
moisture,  and  has  developed  leaves,  stalk,  tassel,  and  silk.  In 
a  similar  way  the  child  has  various  potential  powers  that  cannot 
become  actual  until  environment  has  developed  certain  others. 
No  conceivable  environment  can  make  corn  develop  charac- 
teristics of  the  oak,  or  make  it  produce  grain  before  it  produces 
leaves.  So  the  child  must  become  a  human  being,  and  must 
develop  in  a  certain  way;  each  instinct,  just  as  truly  as  the 
beard,  has  a  definite  time  for  development. 

Since,  however,  man  is  the  most  plastic  of  all  beings,  the  order 
of  his  development  is  subject  to  great  modification.  This  is 
especially  true  of  his  mind.  Unlike  other  machines,  the  brain 
is  always  in  process  of  construction,  always  being  modified  and 
never  completed.  A  machine  may  be  used  for  threshing  oats 
for  several  years,  then  it  can  be  used  with  equal  success  for 
threshing  wheat ;  but  a  brain  used  in  the  botanical  classification 
of  plants  must  be  changed  by  practice  before  it  is  correspond- 


8  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

ingly  useful  in  the  grammatical  classification  of  words.  Every 
time  the  mind  does  a  thing  it  becomes  in  some  respects  a  different 
mind;  hence  the  factors  of  nature  and  nurture  are  almost  in- 
extricably mingled  in  psychical  development,  and  this  makes 
the  natural  order  of  development  exceedingly  diflScult  to  deter- 
mine. 

The  question  is  often  asked  whether  certain  characteristics 
are  native  or  acquired.  The  answer  might  be  in  nearly  every 
case,  "They  are  both."  Native  powers  may  lie  dormant  unless 
awakened  and  stimulated  to  activity  by  environment.  On  the 
other  hand,  nothing  wholly  foreign  to  one's  nature  can  be  ac- 
quired and  made  a  permanent  part  of  one's  self.  The  relation 
of  outer  and  inner  factors  in  development  is  well  illustrated  by 
experiments  on  the  optic  nerve.  Some  kittens  were  kept  blind- 
folded so  the  optic  nerves  were  not  acted  upon  by  light,  while 
the  eyes  of  others  of  the  same  litter  were  opened  and  thus  early 
subjected  to  the  influence  of  light.  At  varying  intervals  the 
kittens  were  killed  and  their  optic  nerves  examined.  It  was 
found  that  those  which  were  kept  blinded  acquired  their  med- 
ullary sheaths  without  the  stimulus  of  Hght,  but  much  less 
quickly  than  the  others.  In  this  case  the  inner  tendency  was 
finally  effective,  even  when  the  outer  stimulus  was  cut  off.  In 
many  other  cases,  however,  where  the  inner  tendency  is  less 
strong,  outer  influences  are  probably  necessary  in  order  that  the 
inner  possibility  may  become  an  actuality.  All  acquisitions, 
therefore,  have  for  their  roots  inner  tendencies,  and  all  inner 
tendencies  remain  undeveloped  or  develop  slowly  without  the 
action  of  favorable  outer  influences. 

THE  PROBLEM  TO  BE   SOLVED 

To  study  the  outer  and  inner  factors  in  human  development, 
and  to  determine  how  the  inner  factors  are  modified  by  the 
outer,  is  the  work  of  child  study.    It  must  discover  the  natural 


NATURE,   SCOPE,  AND   PROBLEMS  OF  CHILD   STUDY         9 

order  of  physical  and  mental  development  and  the  modifying 
effect  of  various  conditions  and  activities  at  different  stages. 
It  must  find  what  characteristics  are,  or  tend  to  be,  the  most 
prominent  at  each  age  by  determining  the  time  of  emergence 
and  greatest  prominence  of  each  of  the  numerous  instincts. 

In  order  to  eliminate  the  influence  of  environment,  the  test 
of  generality  must  be  applied  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
instincts  given  form  and  intensity  by  special  conditions  are  not 
confused  with  more  fundamental  or  normal  instinctive  tendencies. 
For  example,  if  all  the  children  of  about  four  years,  in  a  village 
by  the  seashore,  play  at  making  and  sailing  boats,  the  inference 
may  be  drawn  that  there  is  a  natural  tendency  to  engage  in 
those  occupations  at  that  age.  Further  observations  show 
that  in  other  localities  the  play  occupations  of  the  children  are 
in  all  cases  characteristic  of  the  neighborhood.  Everywhere 
children  of  four  years  imitate,  but  what  they  imitate  varies  with 
their  surroundings ;  hence  the  correct  generahzation  is  that  the 
tendency  to  imitate  is  strong  at  four  years,  because  of  inner  laws 
of  development,  but  that  the  particular  form  of  imitation  is 
determined  by  surroundings. 

In  every  phase  of  child  study  the  problem  is  similar.  In  each 
case  we  ask  what  inner  tendencies  are  prominent  at  each  age, 
and  how  these  tendencies  are  developed  and  modified  by  outer 
influences.  Child  study  is,  therefore,  concerned  with  all  the 
characteristics  that  are  present  at  birth  in  so  far  as  they  differ 
from  those  of  adults,  and  with  the  general  laws  of  development, 
according  to  which  changes  in  size,  structure,  and  instincts  take 
place  between  early  infancy  and  complete  maturity. 

The  science  of  child  study  reveals  the  laws  governing  the  more 
important  changes  with  age  in  the  course  of  the  child's  develop- 
ment and  helps  in  understanding  the  more  variable  changes 
that  appear  from  day  to  day. 

The  art  of  successful  management  of  children  must  be  founded 


lO  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

consciously  or  unconsciously  on  the  science  of  child  study.  So 
great  are  individual  differences  at  birth  and  so  patent  are  the 
effects  of  environment  that  each  child's  peculiarities  and  history 
must  be  studied  in  order  to  rightly  direct  him.  To  show  how 
such  studies  may  be  successfully  made  is  another  phase  of  the 
problems  to  be  solved. 

GENERALITY  OF   LNNER  FORCES  OF  DEVELOPMENT 

The  inner  forces  which  determine  the  form,  structure,  and 
actions  of  each  individual  and  the  changes  he  shall  undergo  in 
reaching  the  adult  stage  are  of  three  degrees  of  generaHty : 
(i)  those  determining  what  is  characteristic  of  all  members  of 
the  species;  (2)  those  determining  what  is  common  only  in  a 
certain  family  or  group  of  families ;  and  (3)  those  producing  the 
distinctive  peculiarities  of  the  individual.  The  first  are  the 
result  of  the  whole  history  of  the  species  and  its  ancestors  in 
certain  environment  or  environments ;  the  second,  of  a  portion 
only  of  the  species  and  in  a  more  limited  environment;  while 
the  third  are  the  result  of  the  union  of  slightly  unHke  parents 
and  of  influences  acting  upon  the  individual  organism  during 
the  embryonic  period.  Bismarck  had  the  common  characteristics 
of  all  human  beings ;  he  had  also  the  characteristics  prominent 
in  Germans,  and  the  individual  peculiarities  that  made  him 
Bismarck,  rather  than  any  other  German. 

The  science  of  child  study  is  chiefly  concerned  with  the  char- 
acteristic tendencies  manifested  by  all  children;  yet  it  throws 
light  on  the  more  special  characteristics  of  heredity  in  nations 
and  families,  and  emphasizes  the  importance  of  individual  char- 
acteristics. The  educator  needs  to  know  what  is  usually  true 
of  children  at  each  age  in  order  that  he  may  find  the  activity 
best  suited  to  that  age.  The  teacher,  however,  needs  to  be 
familiar  not  only  with  the  characteristics  common  to  most  chil- 
dren of  the  age  she  has  in  charge,  but  also  with  their  national 


NATURE,  SCOPE,  AND   PROBLEMS  OF  CHILD   STUDY       ii 

and  individual  peculiarities.     She  must  also  make  herself  familiar 
with  the  environing  influences  past  and  present. 

Exercises  for   Students 

1.  State  physical  differences  between  children  and  adults  that  you  have 
noted  or  are  able  to  discover. 

2.  State  mental  differences  between  children  at  different  ages. 

3 .  Mention  various  standards  of  maturity  for  men  and  women  recognized 
by  society  as  fitting  them  for  certain  purposes. 

4.  Tell  what  you  have  observed  regarding  the  young  of  animals  as  to 
their  relative  helplessness,  and  the  length  of  their  infancy. 

5.  Mention  instances  where  men  have  succeeded  because  of  plasticity 
where  others  failed.  Is  plasticity  needed  more  or  less  in  children  than  in 
animals  ?    Why  ? 

6.  Give  illustrations  of  children  showing  different  characteristics  in  new 
surroundings  and  to  different  persons. 

7.  Can  you  tell  what  characteristics  are  common  at  a  certain  age  by 
studying  children  of  one  locality  and  nationality  only ?    Why?    Illustrate. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  physical  differences  between  children  and  adults,  see  Oppenheim,  chaps. 

ii  and  iii. 
On  the  new  science  of  child  study,  see  Hall,  Forum,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  429-441 ; 

Chrisman,  Forum,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  728-736 ;  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XV,  pp.  269- 

284;  O'Shea,  Jr.  Fed.,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  9-23,  and  Scripture,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol. 

VIII,  pp.  236-239. 
On  old  age,  see  Scott,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  67-122. 
On  the  stages  of  development,  see  Chamberlain,  chap,  iv,  and  Sanford, 

Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  426-449. 
On  infancy  of  animals,  Mills,  Animal  Intelligence,  Part  III,  and  Spaulding, 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LXI,  pp.  1 26-141  (reprinted);  Thorndike,  Psych. 

Rev.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  282-291. 
On  meaning  of  infancy,  see  Fiske,  Excursions  of  an  Evolutionist,  chap,  xii ; 

Destiny  of  Man,  chaps,  iv  and  vi ;  Butler,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  58- 

75,  or  Meaning  of  Education,  pp.  3-34 ;   Christopher,  Trans.  III.  Ch. 

S.  Soc,  Vol.  II,  No.  2,  pp.  109-114;  Chamberlain,  chap,  i;  Pycroft, 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LXII,  pp.  108-116. 


12  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

On  instincts  and  education,  see  Balliet,  Am.  Physical  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII, 
pp.  1-7. 

Later  References 

Books 

Bolton  King  (i)  *  Tanner 

Drummond  GeseU  Tracy 

Articles 

Howard,    Frank   E.      Psychological  Diflferences  between    Children    and 
Adults.    Fed.  Sem.,  1913,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  236-253. 

*The  ntunbers  refer  to  the  titles  listed  in  the  Bibliography,  p.  359. 


CHAPTER  II 
LESS  GENERAL  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  OR  HEREDITY 

Heredity  is  the  term  applied  in  biology  to  the  production 
of  like  by  like.  The  fact  that  the  offspring  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals always  belong  to  the  same  species  as  their  parents,  is  named 
if  not  explained  by  the  word  "heredity."  When  the  term  is 
used  by  stock  breeders  and  students  of  man,  however,  it  has  a 
more  restricted  meaning.  It  then  refers  not  merely  to  the 
likeness  in  species,  but  to  the  less-marked  characteristics  which 
distinguish  different  breeds  or  families  of  the  same  species.  A 
negro's  child  is  not  merely  a  human  being,  but  he  is  a  human 
being  of  the  black  type.  A  Bach  is,  as  a  rule,  not  merely  a 
human  being,  a  Caucasian,  and  a  German,  but  also  a  Bach  in 
the  sense  of  being  a  musical  genius. 

The  context  will  usually  show  whether  the  term  "heredity"  is 
used  in  the  narrower  or  the  broader  sense.  In  both  senses,  the 
laws  and  the  fundamental  phenomena  are  the  same.  A  minute 
cell  formed  by  the  union  of  a  cell  from  a  male  with  the  cell  of  a 
female  of  the  same  species,  develops  into  a  being  similar  to  its 
ancestors,  both  near  and  remote,  and  yet  not  exactly  like  any 
one  of  them. 

We  must  not  regard  all  native  characteristics  of  the  individual 
as  hereditary.  Offspring  of  the  same  parents  differ  from  each 
other,  partly  because  of  heredity  and  partly  from  other  causes. 
In  all  mammals  there  is  a  long  period  of  development  after  two 
germ  cells  have  united  to  form  the  embryo  of  a  new  individual, 
before  birth  takes  place.    During  this  time  the  body  of  the 

13 


14  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

mother  constitutes  the  immediate  environment  and  source  of 
nourishment  of  the  offspring.  Individual  pecuharities  at  birth 
may  be  due  in  part  to  modifications  caused  by  the  condition  of 
the  mother.  In  so  far  as  this  may  be  the  case,  heredity  would 
not  be  identical  with  native  characteristics  of  the  individual. 
Again,  characteristics  of  ancestors  which  were  not  perceptibly 
present  at  birth  in  an  individual,  may  be  clearly  evident  in  the 
youth  or  in  the  mature  man  and  may  therefore  be  properly 
described  as  hereditary,  providing  there  is  no  way  in  which  they 
could  have  been  acquired  by  the  individual  from  the  environment 
or  by  imitation. 

There  is  considerable  popular  belief  in  the  potency  of  "ma- 
ternal impressions."  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  a  severe  shock 
to  the  mother,  especially  if  it  occurs  from  four  to  six  months 
before  the  birth  of  the  child,  may  have  serious  results.  De- 
formities thus  produced  are  the  result  of  arrest  or  disturbance 
of  development  and  do  not  have  any  relation  to  the  specific 
cause  of  the  nervous  shock  to  the  mother.  The  popular  suppo- 
sition that  if  the  mother  is  frightened  by  a  hog,  the  child  will 
resemble  a  pig,  or  if  by  a  snake,  will  have  the  marks  of  a  snake, 
has  no  support  in  scientific  fact.  There  is  no  nervous  connection 
between  the  mother  and  the  fetus,  hence  the  blood  is  the  chief 
avenue  of  influence.  Recent  experiments  of  Dr.  Cannon  show 
that  the  character  of  the  blood  changes  distinctly  when  the 
emotions  of  fear  and  anger  are  experienced ;  hence  it  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  a  pleasant,  normal  emotional  life  for  the 
mother  is  favorable  to  the  best  development  of  the  child,  but  it 
is  not  likely  that  "maternal  impressions"  can  go  so  far  as  to 
produce  specific  tastes  or  talents.  Since  the  mother  is  the  en- 
vironment of  the  child  during  fetal  life  her  condition  has  some 
influence  upon  its  development.  Such  characteristics  as  may 
be  increased  or  decreased  by  the  specific  character  of  this  environ- 
ment during  pregnancy  are  not,  properly  speaking,  hereditary 


HEREDITY  15 

although  they  are  congenital.  The  same  is  true  of  the  effects 
of  alcohol  and  venereal  disease.  A  study  of  similar  and  dissimi- 
lar twins  and  of  brothers  and  sisters  who  are  not  twins  brings  to 
light  some  of  the  interesting  and  complex  relations  between  germ 
heredity,  congenital  and  individual  characteristics,  and  the  in- 
fluences of  environment. 

GENERAL  TRUTHS  OR  LAWS  OF  HEREDITY 

(i)  Children  usually  resemble  their  parents.  A  child  is,  how- 
ever, never  exactly  hke  either  the  father  or  the  mother,  nor  does 
he  possess  the  sum  of  all  the  characteristics  of  both  or  an  equal 
fusion,  but  surely  some  of  each.  The  prominent  qualities  of 
one  parent  or  the  other,  rather  than  a  fusion  of  those  of  both, 
frequently  appear  in  the  child.  For  this  reason  we  find  black- 
haired  and  red-haired  children  in  the  same  family,  instead  of  all 
with  hair  of  an  intermediate  color.  The  child  usually  has  also 
characteristics  not  possessed  by  either  of  his  parents.  The  re- 
semblance to  a  grandparent  or  even  a  more  remote  ancestor,  or 
to  a  relative  not  in  the  direct  line  of  descent,  as  uncle  or  cousin, 
may  be  more  marked  than  to  the  parents. 

(2)  This  suggests  the  truth  that  inheritance  is  not  simply  from 
parents,  but  from  the  two  lines  of  ancestry  of  the  two  families.  This 
view  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  stock  breeders  cannot  predict 
the  characteristics  of  the  offspring  of  mongrels  or  mixed  breeds, 
while  they  can  of  those  known  to  have  been  of  pure  blood  for 
many  generations.  Going  back  a  generation  at  a  time  one  finds 
the  number  of  ancestors  increasing  geometrically  as  follows: 
2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  etc.,  so  that  in  the  tenth  generation  there  are  a 
thousand  ancestors.  This  shows  why,  when  there  are  various 
breeds  or  families  represented,  it  is  impossible  to  predict  the 
result  of  the  union.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  ancestors  are 
all  from  one  line,  the  results  can  be  predicted  with  some  accuracy. 
So  far  as  the  facts  are  known  it  appears  that  the  offspring  of 


l6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

two  parents  of  different  lines  of  pure  breed  ■will,  other  things 
being  equal,  most  resemble  the  one  that  has  been  kept  pure  the 
greatest  number  of  generations. 

In  the  human  race  there  is  far  less  pureness  of  breed  than  in 
animals.  A  practically  pure  breed  of  animals  pairing  every 
year,  can  be  established  in  five  or  six  years ;  while  to  establish 
a  pure  breed  of  human  beings,  even  if  a  regular  plan  were  followed 
as  is  done  with  domestic  animals,  would  require  a  century  and 
a  half.  Again,  since  human  beings  move  about  much  more  than 
other  animals,  the  people  of  any  given  locality  are,  as  a  rule,  of 
much  less  pure  blood  than  the  various  species  of  animals  in  the 
same  region.  Migration,  wars,  and  intermarriage  have  re- 
sulted in  the  mixing  of  blood  from  almost  all  portions  of  the  globe. 
The  results  of  heredity  in  human  beings  are,  therefore,  under 
ordinary  conditions,  infinitely  more  difficult  to  predict  than  in 
animals;  yet  color  may  be  predicted  with  a  good  deal  of  cer- 
tainty in  the  offspring  of  black  and  white  races. 

(3)  Heredity  is  often  of  a  general  capacity  rather  than  of  a 
specific  ability.  For  example,  the  son  of  a  great  scientist  may 
become  a  great  writer  or  attain  great  success  in  business  or 
politics.  Moreover,  nervous  irregularity  in  the  parents  may 
appear  in  the  children  in  the  form  of  imbecility,  insanity,  or 
criminality. 

(4)  Where  there  is  close  inbreeding,  it  has  been  thought  that 
weakness,  especially  mental,  is  likely  to  appear,  and  some  of  the 
royal  families  that  have  intermarried  and  degenerated  are  cited 
as  evidence.  Recent  writers,  however,  are  inclined  to  think  that 
where  weakness  results  from  inbreeding,  it  is  because  weakness 
already  exists  and  is  merely  increased  by  the  process,  while  strong 
qualities  are  just  as  surely  perpetuated  and  increased.  The  Jews 
have  not  developed  mental  weakness,  though  history  shows  no 
other  such  instance  of  human  inbreeding  carried  on  for  thou- 
sands of  years. 


HEREDITY  17 

(5)  The  of  spring  oj  parents  of  pure  blood  sometimes  show  char- 
acteristics of  the  remote  ancestors  of  the  breed;  this  is  known  as 
atavism  or  reversion.  For  example,  pigeons  like  the  original 
blue-rock  pigeons  from  which  all  are  descended,  are  occasionally 
found  among  the  offspring  of  fancy  strains  which  ordinarily 
breed  true.  Reversion  is  more  likely  to  occur  when  distinct 
breeds  are  crossed.  For  example,  mules,  which  result  from 
crossing  the  horse  and  the  ass,  often  have  stripes  similar  to  those 
of  their  zebra-Uke  common  ancestor. 

(6)  Not  all  hereditary  qualities  are  apparent  at  birth.  There 
is  good  reason  to  believe  that  they  appear  at  various  stages  of 
development,  as  do  instincts,  especially  at  the  time  of  puberty. 
Physical  features  and  mental  and  moral  qualities  of  father  or 
mother,  hitherto  imnoticed,  often  become  conspicuous  at  this 
time.  It  is  also  claimed  that  inherited  bodily  or  mental  disease 
frequently  appears  at  about  the  same  age  in  certain  families. 

GENERAL  THEORY  OF  HEREDITY 

The  germ  cells  that  unite  to  form  the  human  embryo  are  of 
almost  microscopic  minuteness.  The  embryo  of  man  can  at 
first  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  the  embryo  of  a  rat  or  an 
elephant,  yet  it  has  potentially  all  the  characteristics  of  the 
species  man.  Moreover,  it  has  the  pecuUarities  of  the  race, 
nation,  and  family  of  each  of  the  two  parents  from  whom  the 
germ  cells  came.  How  such  minute  portions  of  matter  can  em- 
body all  the  characteristics  of  their  ancestors  and  impose  these 
characteristics  upon  all  the  nutriment  by  which  their  size  is 
increased  many  million  fold,  is  one  of  the  greatest  marvels  of 
nature  and  life.  Anything  that  will  make  this  marvel  definitely 
conceivable  is  therefore  to  be  welcomed. 

If  we  accept  the  results  of  recent  experiments  showing  the 
exceeding  smallness  of  particles  of  matter,  we  may  think  of  each 
characteristic  of  each  tissue  (such  as  bony  or  nervous)  and  of 


l8  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

each  organ  as  represented  by  different  kinds  of  particles  of  matter 
in  the  germ  cells.  It  is  thus  possible  to  conceive  of  the  way  in 
which  the  characteristics  of  the  parents  may  be  transmitted  to 
their  descendants.  This  gives  a  very  crude  theory,  however, 
which  is  not  supported  by  observation  and  experiment.  If 
every  tissue  and  organ  must  contribute  material  to  the  germ 
cell,  we  should  expect  that  the  child  of  a  man  who  had  lost  a  leg 
or  an  arm  would  lack  the  same  member,  but  such  is  not  the  case. 
Again,  if  the  different  parts  of  an  embryo  are  formed  of  different 
kinds  of  particles,  we  should  expect  that  if  an  embryo  were 
divided  a  complete  organism  could  not  develop  from  one 
of  the  parts.  It  has  been  found,  however,  by  experiments  upon 
frogs  and  other  of  the  lower  animals,  that  the  fourth  of  the 
embryo  (for  example,  of  a  frog)  will,  under  favorable  conditions, 
develop  into  a  whole  animal  with  no  part  missing. 

Slight  changes  in  conditions,  such  as  turning  an  embryo  over, 
putting  it  in  a  new  medium,  subjecting  it  to  a  different  tempera- 
ture, or  supplying  it  with  food  differing  in  kind  or  amount  from 
the  normal,  greatly  modify  its  development.  It  is,  there- 
fore, improbable  that  the  characteristics  of  each  animal  and  each 
organ  are  determined  by  fundamentally  different  elementary 
particles  of  which  the  germ  cells  are  composed.  It  is  more 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  there  are  comparatively  few  varieties 
of  particles,  and  that  these  tend  to  combine  in  certain  ways  for 
each  species,  according  to  preestablished  affinities,  attractions, 
and  repulsions  which  are  modified  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  by 
external  surroundings  of  the  embryo,  and  by  the  relative  vigor 
of  the  different  elements  of  the  two  germ  cells  composing  it. 

The  chief  discussions  in  biology  during  the  last  decade  have 
centred  about  the  possibility  of  modifying  germ  cells  through 
modifications  of  body  cells.  Changes  in  food,  exercise,  and  mode 
of  life  may  make  great  changes  in  an  animal  or  person;  but 
whether  such  changes  modify  the  germ  cells  also,  so  that  de- 


HEREDITY  19 

scendants  will  have  the  new  characteristics,  is  a  disputed  point. 
For  example,  if  a  son  is  born  to  a  man  at  twenty-five,  and  after 
the  father  has  spent  twenty  years  in  practice  to  develop  his 
musical  talents,  another  son  is  born,  will  the  last  son  inherit  any 
more  musical  ability  than  the  first  one?  Weismann,  who  has 
been  the  leader  on  one  side  of  this  controversy,  says  that  no 
changes  which  take  place  in  the  life  of  a  parent  can  modify  the 
germ  cells  so  as  to  affect  the  offspring.  Each  parent  transmits 
to  his  offspring  what  he  inherits,  but  not  what  he  acquires. 

If  this  be  true,  culture  cannot  be  directly  transmitted;  each 
new  generation  must  begin  where  the  old  began,  and  if  it  advances 
beyond  the  former,  it  must  be  because  of  better  advantages  for 
learning  rather  than  because  of  inherited  ability.  According 
to  this  view,  acquired  weakness  of  body  or  mind  is  also  non- 
transmissible. 

In  the  biological  world,  progress  is  possible  according  to  this 
theory  because  no  two  individual  descendants  are  exactly  alike, 
and  because  the  members  of  each  new  generation  that  are  best 
suited  to  survive  under  certain  constant  conditions,  are  the  ones 
that  live  and  produce  descendants,  while  the  others  die  or  pro- 
duce few  offspring.  This  process  being  repeated  generation  after 
generation,  all  offspring  finally  come  to  have  the  favorable  char- 
acteristics in  a  marked  degree.  For  example,  of  a  dozen  young 
partridges,  the  ones  that  are  colored  most  nearly  like  their  sur- 
roundings are  Ukely  to  survive  and  produce  descendants  with 
similar  coloring.  Again,  the  most  favorably  colored  of  these 
survive  and  produce,  and  thus  after  many  generations  the  prin- 
ciple of  natural  selection  results  in  complete  color  adaptation  to 
surroundings.  When  a  breeder  of  fancy  pigeons  continues  to 
breed  only  those  having  certain  coloring,  the  results  are  similar, 
only  in  this  case  it  is  human  instead  of  natural  selection  that 
determines  the  type  of  pigeon  that  shall  survive. 

Instincts  and  intelligence  are  modified  in  a  similar  way.    For 


20  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

instance,  only  those  young  partridges  that  have  in  the  greatest 
degree  the  tendency  to  remain  quiet  when  danger  threatens, 
are  Ukely  to  reach  maturity  and  produce  offspring.  Natural 
selection,  therefore,  has  thus  determined  the  instinct  as  well 
as  the  coloring  of  the  partridge.  In  the  case  of  intelligence,  the 
results  are  much  the  same.  Plasticity  or  ability  to  learn  is 
unquestionably  favorable  to  survival;  hence  the  young  animals 
that  learn  most  readily  are  Hkely  to  survive  and  produce  de- 
scendants, some  of  which  have  the  capacity  in  a  greater  degree. 
These  in  turn  survive,  and  thus  may  natural  selection  alone 
account  for  the  development  of  intelligence  in  the  higher  animals 
and  in  man.  To  them  ability  to  learn  in  infancy  is  more  advan- 
tageous than  to  know  unchangeably  many  favorable  modes  of 
reaction.  Thus  ability  to  learn,  which  is  the  essence  of  intelli- 
gence, is  developed. 

This  question  of  inheritance  of  acquired  characteristics  is  not 
yet  settled  in  biology,  but  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the 
characteristics  that  a  parent  transmits  are  chiefly  those  that  he 
inherited,  and  that  the  characteristics  acquired  by  the  parent 
rarely,  if  ever,  so  affect  the  germ  cells  as  to  be  transmitted  to  his 
descendants.  In  the  case  of  human  beings  if  there  is  any  trans- 
mission of  acquired  characteristics  by  germ  inheritance,  it  is 
probably  in  so  slight  a  degree  as  to  have  no  effect  worthy  of  note, 
unless  it  be  where  many  generations  have  made  the  same  ac- 
quisitions. Progress  in  civilization  is  therefore  not  to  be  looked 
for  in  greater  inherited  skill  or  intelligence. 

MENDELISM 

The  whole  theory  of  heredity  and  the  methods  of  studying  it 
have  been  modified  by  the  experiments  and  generalizations  of  a 
man  named  Mendel  who  began  experimenting  with  garden  peas 
a  half  century  ago.  His  results  were  obscurely  published  and 
only  brought  into  prominence  at  the  begitming  of  this  century 


HEREDITY  21 

when  two  other  scientists  arrived  at  similar  conclusions  through 
their  investigations.  Since  then,  the  laws  that  he  formulated 
have  been  tested  by  numerous  experiments  upon  plants  and 
animals  and  by  records  of  heredity  in  animals  and  in  human 
beings.  The  results  of  these  investigations  and  of  the  micro- 
scopic study  of  the  development  changes  occuring  in  germ  cells 
are  in  general  confirmatory  of  Mendel's  laws  or  formulated 
generalizations.  He  has  undoubtedly  furnished  the  key  by  the 
use  of  which  many  though  perhaps  not  all  the  facts  of  heredity 
may  be  understood. 

In  the  original  experiments  performed  by  Mendel,  round  and 
wrinkled  peas  were  crossed  and  the  seed  from  the  cross  planted 
and  allowed  to  be  self -fertilized.  The  resulting  crop  consisted 
of  approximately  one  fourth  round  peas  which  when  planted  and 
self-fertilized  produced  round  peas  only,  one  fourth  wrinkled 
peas  which  when  planted  and  self-fertilized  gave  a  pure  strain 
of  wrinkled  peas,  while  the  remaining  seeds  were  of  a  mixed 
character,  producing  when  self-fertilized,  three  varieties  of  peas, 
round,  wrinkled,  and  mixed,  and  in  the  same  proportions  as  be- 
fore. Similar  results  have  been  found  for  a  great  variety  of 
crosses  of  plants  and  animals,  and  in  so  far  as  a  unit  character 
can  be  distinguished,  this  law  of  heredity  seems  to  be  general. 
Its  action  may  be  shown  by  symbols  representing  unit  characters 
as  follows.  Let  A  represent  one  unit  character  or  determiner 
of  the  characteristic,  e.g.,  roundness  of  peas ;  and  B  another,  e.g., 
wrinkledness ;  then  the  union  of  cells  resulting  from  a  cross  be- 
tween the  two  will  be  A  and  B  determiners,  plus  A  and  B  deter- 
miners, and  it  is  evident  that  if  A  combines  with  A,  the  resulting 
individual  pea  will  be  of  the  pure  round  variety.  Similarly,  if 
B  unites  with  B,  a  pure  wrinkled  pea  will  result.  Again,  if  the 
A  of  one  variety  combines  with  B  of  the  other  and  the  B  of  the 
first  with  the  A  of  the  second  there  will  be  two  individuals  of 
mixed  character.     It  is  evident  then  that  when  a  mixed  variety 


22  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

fertilizes  itself  that  the  chances  are  that  one  fourth  of  the  A's 
will  combine  with  A's,  one  fourth  of  the  B's  with  B's,  and  one 
half  of  the  A's  with  B's. 

This  very  simple  law  is  often  obscured  by  the  principle  of 
dominance  of  one  characteristic  and  the  recessiveness  of  the 
other.  For  example,  a  cross  between  a  pure  black  and  a  pure 
white  mouse  results  in  black  mice  only,  but  one  fourth  of  the 
descendants  of  these  black  mice  of  mixed  heredity  are  white. 
Evidently  B  uniting  with  B  can  give  only  black  progeny,  while 
when  B  unites  with  W,  since  B  is  dominant,  black  is  also  the 
result ;  but  when  W  and  W  determiners  meet,  as  they  will  accord- 
ing to  chance  in  one  fourth  of  the  cases,  white  progeny  will  be 
produced.  In  a  similar  way  light-haired  or  red-haired  children 
may  be  born  to  parents  who  are  both  dark  in  complexion,  pro- 
viding both  parents  have  in  their  ancestry  a  person  with  light 
or  red  hair  as  the  case  may  be.  If  one  parent  is  of  parents  wholly 
dark  in  complexion  and  the  other  of  mixed  heredity  or  of  light 
only,  there  will  be  no  children  of  light  complexion  because  dark- 
ness is  dominant.  There  may,  however,  be  degrees  of  darkness 
if  one  is  dark  and  the  other  mixed,  according  as  the  units  or  deter- 
miners from  the  dark  parent  unite  with  the  black  or  the  white 
determiners  of  the  parent  cells  of  mixed  ancestry. 

The  cases  just  named  are  comparatively  simple  because  black- 
ness and  whiteness  are  positive  and  negative  characteristics, 
whiteness  being  due  merely  to  the  absence  of  pigment.  Where 
both  characteristics  are  positive,  there  may  be  both  charac- 
teristics in  the  progeny  equally  or  in  varying  degrees  of  domi- 
nance, or  there  may  apparently  sometimes  be  some  sort  of  fusion 
or  modification  of  the  two  unit  characters  giving  a  progeny 
differing  from  either. 

Usually  when  there  are  several  unit  characters  each  follows 
the  fundamental  law  of  the  single  pairs.  If  round  yellow  peas 
are  crossed  with  wrinkled  green  peas,  several  varieties  of  peas 


HEREDITY  23 

may  result,  such  as  round  green  peas  or  wrinkled  yellow  ones ; 
but  the  relative  proportions  of  round  peas  will  be  the  same  as 
if  all  the  peas  were  of  the  same  color,  while  the  proportion  of 
yellow  peas  will  be  the  same  as  if  the  crosses  were  of  the  same 
shape. 

There  is  still  doubt  as  to  what  characteristics  are  really  trans- 
missible as  unit  characters  and  as  to  the  possible  modifying  effects 
of  certain  determiners  upon  others.  Again  there  is  reason  to 
beheve  that  in  the  changes  taking  place  when  the  characteristics 
of  two  reproductive  cells  rearrange  themselves  in  forming  the 
new  germ  or  embryonic  cell,  the  various  unit  characters  are  not 
combined  individually  with  other  unit  characters,  but  a  group 
of  unit  characters  combines  with  another  group  of  unit  char- 
acters. It  may  sometimes  be  difficult  or  impossible  to  isolate 
certain  characters  from  others,  such  for  example  as  bitterness 
and  hardness  in  fruit,  so  as  to  get  a  hardy  variety  satisfactory 
to  the  taste. 

There  are  other  phenomena  of  heredity  upon  which  Mendelism 
throws  little  light,  although  not  inconsistent  with  them.  One 
of  these  is  sex  linked  inheritance  such  as  the  inheritance  of  color 
blindness  by  a  son  from  a  mother  who  was  not  color  blind  but 
was  the  daughter  of  a  man  who  was  color  blind,  or  the  inheritance 
of  egg  productiveness  from  a  cock  whose  mother  had  that  char- 
acteristic while  her  daughters  fail  to  show  it. 

It  will  be  seen  that  many  of  the  earlier  generalizations  regard- 
ing heredity,  based  on  experience,  may  now  be  explained  very 
easily  by  MendeUsm  ;  and  although  all  the  problems  are  not  yet 
solved,  a  flood  of  Ught  has  been  thrown  upon  the  subject. 

EUGENICS 

Recently  there  has  been  much  discussion  of  the  possibility  of 
improving  the  human  race  through  the  application  of  the  known 
truths  of  heredity  to  the  mating  of  human  beings.    The  move- 


24  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

ment  was  advocated  by  Sir  Francis  Galton  and  the  term  "eugen- 
ics" coined  by  him.  At  first  thought  it  seems  strange  that 
man,  who  has  done  so  much  to  develop  useful  varieties  of  plants 
and  animals  from  those  that  were  relatively  valueless,  should  not 
have  exercised  the  same  intelligence  in  improving  his  own  race. 

The  difficulties,  however,  for  positive  eugenics  are  almost  in- 
finitely greater  than  in  the  case  of  improving  plants  and  animals. 
There  are  only  from  three  to  five  generations  in  a  century,  hence 
much  time  is  required  to  bring  about  changes  in  man  by  breed- 
ing. Again,  the  number  of  characteristics  from  which  selections 
are  to  be  made  for  improvement  are  much  greater  in  man  than  in 
plants  and  animals. 

These  facts  would  make  the  process  a  long  and  difficult  one 
even  if  nothing  stood  in  the  way.  There  are  other  difficulties, 
however.  No  intelligent  breeding  is  possible  without  a  definite 
idea  of  what  is  desired.  The  man  who  wants  breeds  of  beef, 
cattle,  and  draft  horses  proceeds  in  an  entirely  different  way  from 
the  man  who  wants  trotting  horses  and  milch  cows.  Who  can 
agree  upon  the  characteristics  and  combination  of  characteristics 
that  should  be  produced  in  the  improved  variety  of  human 
beings  ?  Should  they  all  be  of  one  variety  or  would  it  be  better 
to  have  as  many  varieties  of  men  as  there  are  special  talents? 
If  these  questions  were  settled,  are  we  sure  that  any  one  could 
mate  men  and  women  more  wisely  than  they  would  select  for 
themselves  if  uninfluenced  by  social,  financial,  and  other  artificial 
reasons  ?  But  aside  from  these  considerations,  the  final  practical 
reason  why  systematic  positive  improvement  of  the  human  race 
is  not  possible  is  that  human  beings  cannot  be  controlled  and 
made  to  mate  as  some  one  else  deems  fitting. 

The  chances  of  success  in  the  case  of  negative  eugenics  are,  how- 
ever, much  greater.  The  breeding  of  the  admittedly  unfit  may 
be  checked  with  the  result  that  the  general  average  of  the  hu- 
man race  may  be  raised  through  a  diminution  of  the  number  of 


HEREDITY  25 

unfit  and  inferior  individuals  born.  The  need  for  this  form  of 
eugenics  is  much  greater  than  formerly  because  the  lives  of  more 
of  the  physically  and  mentally  unfit  are  preserved  and  because 
there  is  less  limitation  of  the  birth  rate  on  the  part  of  inferior 
classes  of  people  than  among  the  superior ;  e.g.,  college  graduates 
are  not  producing  enough  children  to  preserve  their  number, 
while  feeble-minded  persons  are  as  a  rule  prolific  beyond  the 
average.  The  principal  things  suggesting  encouragement  are 
as  follows:  (i)  Those  who  want  children  do  not  so  frequently 
limit  the  number  of  their  offspring  if  they  can  in  any  way  care 
for  them  adequately ;  (2)  normality  is  in  general  dominant  over 
abnormality.  The  offspring  of  a  feeble-minded  parent  and  a 
normal  parent  may  all  be  normal  in  appearance,  but  half  of  them 
will  be  carriers  of  feeble-mindedness.  If  all  mate  with  normal 
persons,  only  one  fourth  will  carry  the  strain  and  so  on  until  the 
number  carrying  it  is  almost  negligible.  Unfortunately  this 
does  not  usually  happen,  for  the  feeble-minded  more  often  mate 
with  defectives  and  produce  many  offspring. 

These  truths  are  most  strikingly  shown  in  the  Kalikak  family, 
where  the  descendants  of  the  same  man  by  a  feeble-minded 
woman  were  nearly  all  of  inferior  mentality,  while  his  descend- 
ants by  a  normal  woman  were  of  a  superior  type. 

The  most  significant  fact  of  heredity  for  purposes  of  eugenics 
is  closely  associated  with  the  above.  If  two  carriers  of  feeble- 
mindedness or  other  abnormality,  though  not  actually  deficient 
themselves,  mate,  some  of  the  offspring  are  likely  to  be  abnormal. 
This  is  the  chief  principle  which,  in  our  present  knowledge,  must 
guide  in  practical  eugenics.  Persons  who  have  the  same  type 
of  abnormality  should  not  marry,  although  a  person  with  an 
abnormality  may  often  safely  marry  one  whose  ancestry  is  en- 
tirely free  from  that  defect.  Some  abnormalities  appear  to  be 
related,  for  example,  feeble-mindedness,  alcoholism,  sex  per- 
version, and  tuberculosis.     Indeed,  it  is  not  improbable  that,  in 


26  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

general,  most  forms  of  abnormality  or  weakness  are  related  so 
that  there  is  risk  in  the  mating  of  two  individuals  who  are  not 
of  sound  stock  even  though  their  weakness  is  not  the  same.  In 
the  present  state  of  knowledge,  however,  we  are  only  justified 
in  saying  that  those  having  the  same  deficiency  in  their  ancestry 
should  not  marry,  and  that  where  the  defects  have  been  shown  to 
be  related,  the  same  rule  should  apply. 

In  the  case  of  some  defective  classes,  especially  the  feeble- 
minded, it  is  evident  that  they  will  not  control  themselves,  hence 
society  must  take  the  matter  in  hand.  Laws  prohibiting  their 
marriage  are  not  sufficient,  for  they  propagate  without  marriage. 
Sterilization  laws  are  not  well  enforced  and  their  value  is  ques- 
tioned. Custodial  care  is  a  sure  remedy  to  which  there  is  little 
objection  except  that  of  cost.  This  may  be  met  in  part  by 
employing  in  useful  labor  a  large  proportion  of  the  number 
confined.  About  two  thirds  of  the  cases  of  feeble-minded- 
ness  are  hereditary,  and  one  generation  of  complete  custodial 
care  would  probably  reduce  this  class  of  feeble-mindedness  by 
one  half. 

The  prevention  of  other  forms  of  inferior  births  by  force  is 
less  easy,  partly  because  we  do  not  know  so  well  who  should  be 
prevented  from  procreation  and  partly  because  we  feel  less  justifi- 
cation for  interference  with  the  liberty  of  the  individual.  Some 
forms  of  insanity  are  known  to  be  inheritable  while  in  other  cases 
there  is  much  uncertainty.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  whether  cer- 
tain unions  are  more  likely  to  result  in  the  production  of  an 
inferior  individual  or  of  a  genius  who  may  be  worth  more  to 
society  than  many  commonplace  normal  persons.  In  the  case 
of  criminals  who  are  not  otherwise  deficient  our  present  knowl- 
edge gives  little  or  no  ground  for  action.  In  the  case  of  blindness 
and  deafness  we  know  that  if  the  same  defect  is  hereditary  in 
both  lines  of  ancestry  some  of  the  children  will  almost  surely 
be  defective.     There  is  little  reason  to  suppose,  however,  that 


HEREDITY  27 

the  union  of  a  congenitally  blind  person  (such  cases  are  rare 
anjrway)  with  a  congenitally  deaf  person  (of  these  there  are  many) 
would  be  any  more  likely  to  result  in  defects  than  if  either  mated 
with  normal  persons. 

There  are  causes  for  the  production  of  the  unfit  which  are  not 
strictly  hereditary,  the  chief  of  which  are  venereal  diseases  and 
alcoholism.  The  first  produces  defects  through  germ  infection 
of  the  embryo,  and  the  latter  through  the  devitalizing  effects  of 
the  drug  upon  the  genn  cells  of  the  parents.  Regarding  the  first, 
there  is  no  dispute ;  while  in  the  case  of  the  latter  the  facts  as  to 
the  probable  degree  of  injury  are  not  known. 

Laws  restricting  marriage  and  requiring  medical  examination 
previous  to  the  issuing  of  a  marriage  license  may  be  helpful,  but 
they  can  only  be  made  effective  through  an  enlightened  public 
opinion ;  hence,  in  the  last  analysis  the  cause  of  eugenics  is  best 
furthered  by  educational  means.  Not  only  is  education  needed, 
but  also  more  knowledge ;  hence,  there  should  be  laws  regarding 
marriage  and  birth  records  which  would  result  in  the  accumula- 
tion of  a  vast  number  of  reliable  facts  from  which  might  be 
deduced  more  accurate  laws  of  human  heredity  making  possible 
more  intelligent  eugenic  action. 

SOCIAL  HEREDITY 

The  acceptance  in  whole,  or  even  in  part,  of  Weismann's  theory 
of  heredity  seems  at  first  to  make  the  problem  of  the  improvement 
of  the  human  race  an  almost  hopeless  one,  since  each  generation 
gets  no  direct  benefit  from  the  improvement  of  the  preceding 
generation,  but  must  begin  just  where  it  did.  A  closer  study, 
however,  shows  that  the  chances  for  racial  improvement  are  just 
as  good  on  the  basis  of  this  theory  as  on  that  of  any  other. 
Capacity  for  education,  rather  than  increased  knowledge  and 
power  at  birth,  is  what  human  beings  need  in  order  that  they 
may  advance ;  and  natural  selection  will  amply  provide  for  this, 


28  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

especially  in  these  days  of  rapid  change  in  the  conditions  and 
activities  of  life. 

The  other  factor  most  needed  for  racial  advancement  is  a  more 
favorable  environment  —  greater  intellectual  and  social  treasures 
—  which  may  be  appropriated  by  the  new  generations  without 
the  toilsome  digging  required  by  their  predecessors.  Each  new 
generation  inherits,  not  only  the  wealth  and  knowledge  of  the 
race,  but  all  the  means  of  wealth  and  knowledge,  such  as  ma- 
chinery, industrial  and  commercial  organizations,  educational 
and  scientific  institutions,  systems  and  methods,  together  with 
more  or  less  fixed  social  ideals,  customs,  and  language.  Whether 
a  man  inherits  the  minute  structural  changes  produced  in  his 
parents'  bodies  by  what  they  did  before  his  conception,  is  a 
matter  of  little  moment  compared  with  his  inheritance  of  ca- 
pacity and  opportunity  for  using  all  the  accumulated  results  of 
the  experience  of  the  ages.  It  is  this  inherited  environment  in 
which  he  is  to  grow,  and  upon  which  he  is  to  feed,  that  chiefly 
determines  the  amount  and  direction  of  his  development.  All 
the  conditions  of  life  produced  by  civilization  constitute  what, 
in  a  very  general  way,  may  be  called  "social  inheritance."  Man 
is  truly  "the  heir  of  all  the  ages,"  and  each  generation  utiHzes 
what  has  been  produced  and  learned  by  the  preceding.  The 
social  heritage  of  an  individual  consists  of  all  the  knowledge, 
beHefs,  customs,  laws,  and  language  of  the  nation,  community, 
and  family  into  which  he  is  born. 

Much  of  what  has  been  ascribed  to  physical  heredity  is,  in 
reality,  due  partially  or  wholly  to  social  heredity.  The  history 
of  the  Jukes  family,  in  which  it  is  shown  that  nearly  all  of  more 
than  a  thousand  descendants  of  one  man  were  criminals  or 
paupers,  proves  nothing  regarding  physical  heredity,  for  the 
family  was  for  many  years  almost  isolated  from  society ;  con- 
sequently, the  factor  of  social  heredity  had  the  fullest  chance  to 
operate.     The  children  of  a  young  couple  belonging  to  this  family 


HEREDITY  29 

who  moved  into  another  locality,  and  thus  partially  got  the 
benefit  of  a  different  social  inheritance,  grew  up  much  as  other 
children  of  the  neighborhood.  The  records  of  charitable  societies 
show  that  about  eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  children  of  paupers 
and  criminals  who  are  placed  in  good  homes  at  an  early  age  be- 
come good  citizens. 

Every  nation  and  every  family  possesses  a  wealth  of  beliefs, 
sentiments,  artistic  and  moral  ideals,  lore,  traditions,  and  cus- 
toms which  descend  to  the  children  by  an  incontestible  law  of 
entail.  Truly,  in  educating  a  child,  we  should  begin  with  his 
grandparents;  for  he  will  inevitably  get  the  benefit  through 
social  heredity  in  the  form  of  family  customs,  habits,  and  tradi- 
tions, though  probably  not  through  inherited  acquisitions. 

Improvement  in  the  human  race  may  be  brought  about  first 
by  making  a  better  home  and  community  environment  which 
will  give  the  best  opportunity  and  stimulus  for  the  development 
of  desirable  qualities,  and  second  by  improving  the  methods  of 
instruction  so  that  the  children  shall  be  able  to  take  swift  and 
complete  possession  of  their  valuable  inheritance  in  material, 
social,  and  intellectual  lines  and  use  it  efficiently.  From  the 
individual  standpoint  heredity  should  neither  be  ignored  as  of 
no  importance  nor  yielded  to  as  inevitably  fixing  one's  destiny. 
Instinctive  and  hereditary  tendencies  are  the  roots  from  which 
the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  life  develops.  Some  individuals 
may  develop  more  readily,  and  to  a  greater  degree  than  others, 
all  or  some  human  characteristics,  but  each  may  make  the  most 
of  his  environment.  Some  cannot  go  as  far  as  others  in  certain 
directions  nor  as  easily,  but  no  one  has  exhausted  his  possibilities 
of  development.  The  practical  problem  is  to  expend  our  efforts 
upon  the  useful  characteristics  which  we  possess  in  the  greatest 
degree. 


3©  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Give  examples  of  heredity  in  both  the  broader  and  the  narrower  mean- 
ing of  the  word. 

2.  Illustrate  each  of  the  laws  of  heredity. 

3.  Indicate  how  such  characteristics  as  those  of  pointer  dogs,  trotting 
horses,  homing  pigeons,  could  have  developed  either  with  or  without  the 
inheritance  of  acquired  characteristics. 

4.  Give  several  illustrations  of  MendeUan  inheritance  known  to  you. 

5.  Look  up  the  statistics  of  the  birth  rate  among  different  classes  of  people 
and  point  out  their  bearing  upon  eugenics. 

6.  Imagine  a  company  of  people  of  a  civilized  country  placed  on  an  island 
without  tools  or  machines  of  any  kind,  and  think  how  long  it  would  take 
them  to  be  able  to  hve  as  they  had  been  living.  Then  imagine  a  company 
of  children  of  civilized  people  left  without  a  language  or  any  social  or  intellec- 
tual knowledge,  as  well  as  without  the  material  conveniences  of  civilization, 
and  think  how  long  it  would  take  them  and  their  descendants  to  reach  the 
civilization  of  their  parents. 

7.  Are  the  peculiarities  of  half-breeds  and  others  who  are  without  a 
coimtry  or  people  of  their  own,  due  chiefly  to  physical  or  to  social  heredity  ? 

8.  What  is  the  effect  of  never  being  a  member  of  a  family,  as  in  the  case  of 
children  in  orphan  asylums?    Why? 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  general  theory  of  heredity,  see  Orr,  Theory  of  Development  and  In- 
heritance; Brooks,  Heredity,  also  The  Foundations  of  Zoology ;  Weis- 
mann.  The  Germ-Plasm;  Romanes,  An  Examination  of  Weismannism, 
also  Darwin  and  After  Darwin,  Vol.  II. 

For  facts  regarding  heredity  and  environment,  consult  Ribot,  Heredity; 
Nisbet,  Marriage  and  Heredity;  works  on  criminals,  especially  Morrison, 
Juvenile  Offenders;  Winship  or  Dugdale  on  The  Jukes;  Gallon,  Heredi- 
tary Genius;  Woods,  "  Mental  and  Moral  Heredity  in  Royalty,"  Pop. 
Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LXI,  pp.  366-378,  449-460,  506-513,  Vol.  LXII,  pp.  76- 
84,  167-182  ;  Ellis,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LVIII,  pp.  595-603,  Vol.  LIX, 
pp.  59-67  ;  Oppenheim,  Development  of  the  Child,  chap,  iv ;  and  for  a 
good  brief  discussion  of  theory  and  facts,  see  Eigenmann,  Pop.  Sci. 
Mo.,  Vol.  LXI,  pp.  32-44. 

On  heredity  and  education,  see  Guyau,  Education  and  Heredity;  Bradford, 
Heredity  and  Christian  Problems. 


HEREDITY 


31 


On  social  heredity,  see  Baldwin,  Vol,  II,  especially  pp.  57-64 ;  Allen,  N.  W. 

Mo.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  400-403, 436-439 ;  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  344-352 ; 

Monro,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  367-377. 
See  also  Wilson,  The  Cell  in  Development  and  Inheritance. 


Later  References 

Books 

Bolton 

EUis,  Havelock  (i)  ^ 

Sandiford 

Conklin 

Goddard  (i  &  2) 

Thomas 

Conn 

Hirsch 

Thompson 

Castle 

Jewett 

Thorndike  (4  &  8) 

Davenport 

Jordan 

Walter 

Danielson 

Nisbet 

Winship 

Dugdale 

Pearson 

Woods 

Elderton 

Saleeby 

*  The  numbers  refer  to  titles  listed  in  the  Bibliography,  p.  359. 


CHAPTER  III 

PHYSICAL  GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 

GENERAL  PHENOMENA  OF  GROWTH 

If  we  were  introduced  into  a  factory  where  little  machines 
were  taking  into  and  making  part  of  themselves,  wood,  iron, 
and  other  manufacturing  materials,  and  thus  gradually  becoming 
large  machines,  each  of  its  own  kind  (e.g.  locomotives  or  sewing 
machines),  and  that  without  interfering  with  the  movement  of 
a  cog,  crank,  or  wheel  during  the  enlargement,  we  should  be 
astonished  beyond  measure.  Yet  this  is  analogous  to  what 
organic  machines  (plants  and  animals)  are  doing  in  nature's 
factory  all  around  us.  Milk,  grass,  and  grain  are  transformed 
into  horses,  cows,  chickens,  and  children,  with  the  proper  char- 
acteristics of  each ;  and  all  the  time  bones,  muscles,  and  blood 
vessels  are  enlarging  without  a  pause  in  the  working  of  the 
organism.  Only  familiarity  prevents  us  from  continually 
wondering  at  this  miracle,  repeated  in  a  thousand  different 
forms  each  year. 

Every  organism  begins  as  a  single  cell,  and  by  taking  in  and 
transforming  nourishment,  it  grows  into  an  individual  of  its 
species.  All  increase  in  size  is  the  result  of  two  processes : 
(i)  increase  in  number  of  cells  by  division,  and  (2)  enlargement 
of  the  cells  thus  formed.  Growth  during  the  embryonic  period 
is  due  mainly  to  the  first  cause,  and  after  birth,  to  the  second. 
The  body  of  a  child  is  composed  of  about  as  many  cells  as  that 
of  an  adult;  hence  his  growth  is  principally  by  the  enlarge- 
ment of  cells. 

33 


PHYSICAL  GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT  33 

The  importance  of  inner  tendencies  is  well  illustrated  in 
physical  growth  and  development.  The  law  of  motion,  that 
a  body  once  set  in  motion  continues  to  move  forever  and  at  the 
same  rate,  unless  acted  upon  by  some  other  force,  does  not  apply 
to  growth.  An  organism  does  not  grow  forever  when  once 
started,  nor  is  the  rate  of  growth  uniform,  but  it  grows  at  a 
varying  rate,  till  the  size  of  its  species  is  attained,  then  it  stops. 
It  is  not  even  possible  to  change,  except  within  narrow  limits, 
the  rate,  amount,  or  direction  of  growth,  by  changes  in  food 
and  surroundings.  Evidently  each  species  is  so  organized  that 
it  grows  about  so  much  during  a  certain  time,  and  lives  about 
so  long.  That  size  is  determined  largely  by  the  number  of  ele- 
ments in  the  germ  cell  is  indicated  by  recent  experiments  upon 
the  embryos  of  lower  animals.  It  has  been  found,  for  example, 
that  if  the  embryo  of  a  frog  is  divided  into  two  or  four  parts, 
each  part  will  develop  into  a  whole  frog,  but  of  a  correspondingly 
fractional  size  and  length  of  life. 

GENERAL  TRUTHS  REGARDING  GROWTH  OF   CHILDREN 

The  most  rapid  growth  is  before  birth,  for  the  infant  at  birth 
is  five  milHon  times  as  large  as  the  original  germ  cell.  After 
birth  the  most  rapid  growth  is  during  the  first  year,  when  it  is 
nearly  threefold.  From  this  time  on  increase  in  size  is  less 
rapid,  and  in  general  the  rate  sfightly  decreases  till  about  the 
eleventh  year,  when  there  is  an  acceleration  in  growth,  first  in 
height,  then  in  weight.  The  acceleration  in  growth  begins 
earlier  in  girls,  but  lasts  longer  in  boys.  In  both,  the  stage  of 
rapid  growth  at  puberty  is  preceded  and  followed  by  a  period 
of  slow  growth,  and  again  in  both,  rapid  growth  in  height  pre- 
cedes rapid  growth  in  weight.  Since  girls  begin  growing  rapidly 
while  boys  are  in  the  stage  of  slow  growth,  girls  are  for  a  year 
or  two  taller  and  heavier  than  boys.  The  age  at  which  this 
occurs  in  girls  is  about  twelve  years,  but  varies  a  year  or  two  in 
p 


34  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

different  countries.  Growth  is  usually  complete  before  twenty, 
at  least  as  regards  height. 

Measurements  of  individual  children  show  that  in  general  a 
period  of  rapid  growth  in  height  or  in  length  of  limb  is  a  period 
of  slow  growth  in  diameter,  and,  conversely,  rapid  growth  in 
diameter  occurs  at  the  time  of  retarded  growth  in  length. 

The  absolute  height  and  weight  of  healthy  children  may  vary 
greatly,  but  the  relation  of  weight  to  height  is  more  nearly  the 
same  for  children  of  varying  size  who  are  of  the  same  age.  The 
coeflScient  of  growth  found  by  dividing  weight  by  height  varies 
from  .95  at  five  and  a  half  years  of  age  to  1.90  at  seventeen  years. 
In  other  words  a  boy  of  five  weighs  less  than  one  pound  for  each 
inch  of  height,  while  one  of  seventeen  weighs  nearly  two  pounds 
for  each  inch  of  height.  The  normality  of  a  child's  growth  is 
better  indicated  by  his  weight-height  coefficient  than  by  any 
absolute  figures.  The  coefficient  for  tall  children  is,  however,  a 
little  in  advance  of  that  for  short  children  of  the  same  age, 
which  indicates  that  they  mature  earlier. 

Since  lung  power  or  breathing  capacity  is  such  an  important 
factor  in  all  physiological  processes,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
that  there  is  a  definite  relation  for  each  age  between  height  and 
lung  capacity  or  breathing  power.  At  five  and  a  half  years  of 
age  the  cubic  inches  of  breathing  capacity  divided  by  the  linear 
inches  of  height  give  a  vital-height  coefficient  of  1.16,  while  at 
seventeen  it  has  increased  to  3.50.  (See  curves  and  tables  in 
the  Baldwin  cards  reproduced  in  Chapter  XVIII.) 

The  relation  of  growth  coefficients  to  maturity  seems  to  be 
very  close.  A  child  who  has  high  coefficients  of  weight-height 
and  breathing  power-height  is  likely  to  be  more  mature  physio- 
logically than  the  one  whose  growth  and  vital  coefficients  are 
low.  Children  who  become  pubescent  at  an  early  age  are  likely 
to  have  high  coefficients,  while  those  who  are  late  in  maturing 
usually  have  low  coefficients. 


PHYSICAL  GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT  35 

There  is  reason  to  believe  also  that  mental  maturity  corre- 
sponds more  closely  with  physiological  age  than  it  does  with 
chronological  age.  Children  who  rank  high  in  the  coefficients 
of  growth  and  vitality  are  therefore  likely  to  be  more  mature 
mentally  than  those  who  rank  low,  although  they  are  not  neces- 
sarily brighter  than  the  smaller  and  less  mature  children.  The 
relations  of  breathing  power  and  weight  are  probably  most 
significant  of  all  ratios  as  to  health  and  mental  development. 
According  to  De  Busk  the  coefficient  of  breathing  capacity  to 
weight  correlates  closely  with  the  results  of  the  Binet  tests  as 
to  mental  age. 

FACTORS  DETERMINING  GROWTH 

The  truths  regarding  growth  stated  in  the  preceding  topic 
apply  not  merely  to  the  people  of  one  race,  or  to  those  with  the 
same  habits  of  exercise  and  eating,  but  to  all  peoples  from  which 
statistics  have  been  obtained ;  hence  these  variations  in  growth 
common  to  all  of  the  human  species  must  be  due  to  inner  ten- 
dencies. So  definite  are  these  tendencies  that  of  all  human 
beings  living  under  the  most  varied  conditions  there  are  very 
few  who  fail  to  reach  a  height  of  five  feet  and  still  fewer  that 
greatly  exceed  six  feet. 

Heredity  is  another  less  universal  inner  tendency  determining 
growth,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  people  of  certain  nations 
and  of  certain  families  mature  earlier  or  attain  a  greater  size 
than  those  of  others.  There  are  also  tendencies  to  certain  ac- 
celerations of  growth  which  are  peculiar  to  individuals,  for  not 
all  children,  even  of  the  same  family,  grow  at  the  same  rate  at 
the  same  age.  Neither  do  they  all  attain  the  same  size  when 
outer  influences  are  the  same.  The  amount  and  rate  of  growth 
of  every  child  is  thus  largely  determined  by  inner  tendencies. 

Outer  influences,  however,  such  as  climate,  exercise,  and 
nutrition  may  modify  rate  and  amoimt  of  growth. 


36  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Climate,  especially  temperature,  may  be  a  factor  in  growth, 
since  seasonal  variations  may  be  detected  in  the  growth  of 
children.  Increase  in  the  height  of  children  is  greatest  in  the 
spring  and  early  summer,  while  increase  in  weight  is  greatest  in 
the  fall  or  early  winter.  This  may  be  interpreted  either  as  the 
result  of  an  inner  tendency  to  rhythmic  seasonal  growth,  or  to 
the  effects  of  variation  in  temperature.  People  in  warm  coun- 
tries mature  more  quickly,  but  do  not  reach  a  greater  size,  than 
those  in  cold  countries ;  hence,  we  may  infer  that  heat  does  not 
increase  the  ultimate  size  of  human  beings.  People  of  the 
Arctics  and  the  Tropics  are  as  a  rule  not  large ;  hence,  a  temperate 
climate  is  probably  more  favorable  to  the  greatest  growth. 

Exercise  may  modify  amount  and  rate  of  growth  to  some 
extent,  but  its  greatest  effect  is  probably  in  the  substitution  of 
muscular  for  fatty  tissue  in  certain  parts,  without  much  change 
in  ultimate  size.  The  fact  recently  noted  that  children  engaged 
in  manual  training  during  the  summer  showed  less  than  the 
usual  variation  in  growth,  with  change  of  season,  suggests  that 
seasonal  variations  in  growth  may  be  due  to  change  in  occupa- 
tion as  much  as  to  change  in  temperature. 

The  fact  that  children  of  the  well-to-do,  and  presumably 
better  fed,  classes  are  larger  than  those  of  the  less  favored  class, 
seems  to  indicate  that  nutrition  is  another  important  factor  in 
growth.  In  England  this  might  be  partially  explained  by  hered- 
ity, but  not  in  this  country.  The  fact,  however,  that  the  rate 
of  growth  of  children  in  both  this  country  and  in  England  is 
less  in  the  well-to-do  classes  during  school  life  from  the  ages  of 
six  to  eighteen  than  it  is  in  the  poorer  classes,  shows  that  the 
effects  of  good  or  poor  nutrition  must  be  chiefly  limited  to  the 
period  preceding  the  school  age.  It  is  altogether  probable  that 
poor  nutrition  has  the  greatest  effect  during  the  embryonic 
period  and  the  first  year  or  two  of  life  when  growth  is  rapid; 
hence,  though  both  infants  and  adults  of  the  poorer  classes  are 


PHYSICAL  GROWTH  AND   DEVELOPMENT  37 

smaller  than  those  of  the  more  favored  classes,  yet  the  amount 
of  growth  from  six  to  eighteen  is  greater  in  the  former  than  in 
the  latter. 

That  growth  is  greatly  affected  by  a  combination  of  factors 
dependent  upon  housing  conditions  is  strikingly  shown  by  statis- 
tics of  the  height  of  children  tabulated  according  to  the  number 
of  persons  per  room. 

A  temporary  condition  such  as  sickness  nearly  always  retards 
growth ;  but  if  recovery  is  complete,  there  is  usually  a  period 
of  rapid  growth  in  which  the  loss  is  made  up ;  hence,  though  the 
time  of  growth  may  thus  be  modified,  the  total  growth  is  probably 
affected  only  by  prolonged  illness  or  other  unfavorable  conditions. 

GROWTH   OF    PARTS 

The  facts  previously  mentioned  as  to  the  difference  in  the 
relative  size  of  parts  in  children  and  adults  are  only  some  of  the 
most  striking  instances  of  the  general  truth,  each  part  increases 
in  size  according  to  an  inner  law  of  its  own.  Other  facts  equally 
striking  are  as  follows :  the  brain  increases  in  weight  about  four 
times,  the  heart  thirteen  times,  and  the  lungs  twenty  times. 
The  weight  of  the  brain  of  boys  at  birth  is  12.29  P^^  cent  of  that 
of  the  body,  while  at  twenty-five  it  is  only  2.16  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  the  body.  The  changes  of  other  organs  are :  heart, 
from  .76  per  cent  to  .46  per  cent ;  right  lung,  .94  per  cent  to  .77 
per  cent;  liver,  4.6  per  cent  to  2.8  per  cent;  and  kidneys,  .75 
per  cent  to  .46  per  cent.  The  shape  of  the  organs  also  changes 
with  age.  For  example,  the  Eustachian  tube  is  not  only  relatively 
short  in  the  child,  but  it  is  absolutely  broader  than  in  the  adult ; 
while  the  child's  stomach  is  much  more  tubular  in  form  and  more 
nearly  vertical  in  position  than  the  adult's. 

The  law  governing  the  growth  of  each  part  must,  however, 
be  consistent  with  the  general  law  governing  the  growth  of  the 
body  as  a  whole,  otherwise  the  proportion  of  parts  would  vary 


38  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

to  such  an  extent  that  organic  processes  would  be  disturbed, 
and  life  and  health  could  not  be  maintained.  Presumably  it  is 
advantageous  for  the  proportion  of  parts  to  vary  somewhat  at 
different  ages,  when  there  are  different  functions  to  be  performed 
and  when  the  physiological  processes  of  respiration,  circulation, 
and  digestion  are  undergoing  change. 

It  is  now  known  that  growth  is  regulated  to  a  considerable 
extent  by  the  action  of  cert  in  glands,  notably  the  thyroid.  De- 
ficiency in  size  and  mentality  is  frequently  associated  with  de- 
ficiency in  this  organ. 

HEALTH   AND   GROWTH 

Normal  growth  during  childhood  is  in  general  a  sign  of  good 
health,  while  very  rapid  or  very  slow  growth  is  usually  a  sign  of 
poor  health.  The  period  of  rapid  growth  at  the  beginning  of 
puberty  is  generally  regarded  as  a  critical  period  both  physically 
and  mentally. 

There  is  difference  of  opinion,  however,  as  to  the  relation  of 
growth  to  health  at  this  time.  It  is  held  by  some  that  health  is 
likely  to  be  interfered  with  by  this  rapid  growth.  This  may  be 
true  in  individual  cases;  but  the  investigations  of  Hertel  and 
others  show  that  there  is  less  illness  among  boys  and  girls  during 
the  period  of  rapid  growth  than  in  the  years  of  slow  growth  im- 
mediately preceding  and  following.  To  this  it  is  replied  that 
though  there  is  not  actual  disease,  there  is  usually  some  debility 
that  with  a  little  overstrain  may  result  in  illness ;  hence,  require- 
ments, especially  in  school,  should  be  lessened  at  this  time  in 
order  that  all  the  energy  may  be  expended  in  growth.  The  facts, 
however,  do  not  support  this  view,  for  most  youths  are  more 
energetic  and  restless  at  this  than  at  any  other  time  (though 
some  individuals  are  sluggish  and  listless).  Experiments  also 
prove  that  at  this  time  there  is  a  great  increase  of  muscular 
power  and  in  size  of  vital  organs,  especially  the  lungs.    The 


PHYSICAL  GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT  39 

argument  that  ill  health  often  dates  from  this  period  is  answered 
by  the  fact  that  recovery  also  often  takes  place  at  this  time 
through  what  is  called  "outgrowing  the  disease." 

There  is  no  ground,  therefore,  for  the  view  that  in  general 
either  physical  or  mental  work  should  be  discarded  during  this 
period,  though  such  is  undoubtedly  advisable  in  individual 
cases.  Moderately  rapid  growth  is  always  an  accompaniment 
of  health  and  vigor.  The  only  difference  is  that  at  this  time 
growth  is  normally  more  rapid  than  at  other  times.  Abnormally 
rapid  growth  is  likely  to  be  accompanied  at  this,  as  at  other  ages, 
by  poor  health  and  imperfect  development.  Temporary  weak- 
ness may  result  at  this  time  from  inequality  in  growth  and 
development,  as  when  a  child  grows  rapidly  in  height  without 
a  corresponding  increase  of  lung  capacity.  The  development  of 
new  functions  at  this  age  complicates  the  situation.  Although 
at  this  time  a  youth  can  often  do  more  work  and  endure  more 
hardships  than  at  any  other  time,  yet  if  the  difficulties  are  not 
overcome,  the  results  are  more  serious  than  at  any  other  time, 
especially  when  there  is  lack  of  harmony  in  the  development  of 
parts.  The  rapid  growth  of  this  period  calls  not  for  less  work 
but  rather  for  more,  yet  care  must  be  exercised  that  there  be 
no  overstrain.  At  this  time  is  needed  not  stimulation  or  repres- 
sion, but  direction,  in  order  that  development  may  correspond  to 
growth  and  be  of  a  desirable  kind. 

GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 

These  two  terms  are  often  used  interchangeably,  probably 
because  the  processes  usually  take  place  together.  Their  mean- 
ing is,  however,  different,  and  there  is  often  a  lack  of  correla- 
tion between  the  processes. 

Growth,  properly  speaking,  refers  only  to  increase  in  size  of 
parts,  and  the  consequent  change  in  size  and  shape  of  the  body 
as  a  whole.     It  is  the  result  of  increase  in  the  number  or  size 


40  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

(or  both)  of  the  cells  composing  the  body.  Development  more 
properly  denotes  changes  in  character  and  connection  of  cells. 
If  an  infant  were  to  grow  to  adult  size  without  any  corresponding 
change  in  cells,  he  would  be  utterly  incapable  of  sustaining  his 
weight,  with  his  cartilaginous  bones  and  flabby  muscles  not  yet 
connected  with  controlling  nerve  centers.  It  is  a  fact  well 
known  to  physicians  that  deficient  or  improper  nutritive  condi- 
tions often  affect  development  more  than  they  do  growth.  A 
child  may  be  quite  large  for  his  age,  but  poorly  developed  because 
of  lack  of  mineral  matter  in  the  bone  cells,  just  as  a  plant  in  a 
dark  cellar  may  attain  great  size  but  be  utterly  lacking  in  the 
essential  qualities  of  a  healthy  plant. 

Arrest  or  acceleration  of  growth  and  development  together 
is  probably  less  serious  than  of  either  alone.  Where  they  take 
place  together,  subsequent  growth  and  development  are  not 
necessarily  interfered  with.  Cells  probably  tend  to  change  in 
character  when  increasing  in  size,  and  to  change  in  size  when 
being  modified  in  character.  Changes  of  one  kind  only  are 
usually  disturbing;  hence,  it  may  be  stated  as  a  general  rule: 
rapid  growth  should  he  accompanied  or  quickly  followed  by  a  cor- 
responding change  in  development  in  order  that  arrest  of  development 
may  not  occur. 

After  the  iimer  growth  tendencies  have  worked  themselves 
out,  and  full  normal  size  is  attained,  there  is  still  some  possibility 
of  change  in  size  of  parts,  especially  of  muscles.  Sickness  and 
lack  of  exercise  decrease  their  size,  while,  in  health,  exercise  in- 
creases it.  Ordinary  exercise  during  middle  life  maintains  the 
size  of  muscles,  while  in  old  age  the  muscles  are  decreased  rather 
than  increased  in  bulk  by  special  exercise.  The  old  man  of 
eighty  who  increased  the  size  of  his  calves  by  bicycle  riding  was 
an  exception  to  the  general  rule.  The  term  "development" 
is  sometimes  applied  to  special  increase  in  size  of  parts,  produced 
by  exercise,  but  the  word  even  then  usually  implies  also  change 


PHYSICAL   GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT  41 

in  quality  of  the  part.     A  muscle,  for  example,  when  exercised, 
increases  in  hardness  more  than  in  size. 

Nerve  centers  are  capable  of  less  growth  through  exercise 
than  muscles ;  but  they  have  greater  capacity  for  development, 
or,  in  other  words,  for  changes  in  cells  and  in  connections  between 
cells.  Growth  of  the  brain  is  nearly  as  complete  at  six  as  is 
growth  of  muscle  at  three  times  that  age,  whereas  development 
of  nerve  cells  is  not  complete  at  twice  eighteen.  Growth  of  the 
brain  is  due  almost  wholly  to  growth  of  the  fibers  connecting 
cells  with  each  other,  and  this  is  an  important  phase  of  develop- 
ment, since  the  cells  are  thus  brought  into  harmonious  relation. 
The  increased  mental  power  that  comes  with  age  and  training 
is  the  result,  not  so  much  of  changes  in  individual  cells,  as  of 
changes  in  those  connections  between  cells  which  make  possible 
the  use  of  many  parts  of  the  brain  in  the  accomplishment  of  a 
single  purpose. 

NATURAL  ORDER  OF  DEVELOPMENT  IN  RELATION  TO  EXERCISE 

Whatever  may  be  true  of  the  effect  of  exercise  upon  growth  as 
a  whole,  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  development  is  promoted 
by  moderate  exercise  of  the  whole  body.  This  is  true  during 
both  the  growing  and  the  mature  stage  of  life.  As  to  particular 
parts  of  the  body  we  know  that  changes  in  growth  and  develop- 
ment may  be  produced  by  systematic  exercise  of  certain  parts. 
This  is  well  shown  in  the  various  types  of  athletes  with  extraor- 
dinary leg,  arm,  back,  or  chest  power. 

Again,  occupations  requiring  the  use  of  one  arm  or  one  leg 
only  may  produce  overdevelopment  on  one  side.  Such  excess 
of  development  of  one  limb  over  the  other  is,  however,  limited. 
Experiments  show  that  when  the  right  arm  is  used,  nervous 
impulses  are  sent  to  other  muscles  than  those  used,  and  also  to 
the  corresponding  muscles  of  the  left  arm.  Gain  in  size  and 
strength  from  systematic  exercise  of  certain  muscles  is  shared 


42  FXJNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

by  other  parts  of  the  body.  For  this  reason  some  degree  of  sym- 
metry is  preserved  when  the  exercise  is  largely  one-sided.  The 
development  of  internal  organs,  especially  the  muscles  of  the 
heart  and  lungs,  is  also  affected  by  exercise  of  other  organs; 
hence  the  dangers  of  overspecialization  are  diminished  by  this 
partial  diffusion  of  the  effects  of  exercise.  Yet  it  is  not  difficult 
to  destroy  bodily  symmetry  by  overexercise  of  parts,  while 
equilibrium  of  functions  of  different  parts  is  still  more  easily 
disturbed,  so  that  ill  health  and  death  are  not  infrequent  results 
of  extreme  specialization  in  exercise,  e.g.  a  man  who  developed 
his  muscles  so  that  he  could  lift  three  thousand  pounds,  died  from 
nervous  exhaustion. 

The  effects  of  exercise  on  growth  and  development  are  prac- 
tically the  same  for  nerve  cells  as  for  muscle  cells,  except  that  the 
changes  in  size  are  not  so  great  in  nerve  cells.  Nerve  cells  not 
exercised  because  of  loss  of  a  limb  or  of  a  sense  at  an  early  age, 
as  in  the  case  of  Laura  Bridgman,  are  not  quite  as  large  as  other 
cells  and  much  less  developed,  i.e.  have  fewer  processes  extending 
out  from  them. 

Muscular  abihty  depends  not  so  much  upon  the  degree  of 
development  of  muscles  as  upon  the  harmonious  working  of  all 
the  muscles  concerned  in  a  movement.  It  is  therefore  more  a 
matter  of  nervous  connections  than  of  muscular  strength.  This 
is  perhaps  best  illustrated  in  throwing  and  wrestling,  where 
victory  goes  not  to  the  strongest,  but  to  the  one  whose  muscles 
work  together  to  the  best  advantage.  A  skillful  thrower  uses 
first  the  muscles  of  the  legs,  then  successively  those  of  the  body, 
shoulder,  arm,  forearm,  wrist,  and  fingers,  and  the  ball,  shot, 
or  hammer  leaves  the  hand  with  a  force  equal  to  the  sum  of  the 
forces  exerted  by  these  muscles.  An  unskilled  thrower,  on  the 
other  hand,  uses  principally  the  muscles  of  shoulder  and  upper 
arm,  and  these  not  in  harmony ;  hence,  though  he  have  the  arm 
of  a  blacksmith,  he  may  be  beaten  by  a  stripling  baseball  pitcher. 


PHYSICAL  GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT  43 

It  is  evident  that  special  exercise  of  parts  may  be  injurious 
because  it  overdevelops  the  parts  exercised,  and  hinders  rather 
than  helps  in  the  harmonious  working  of  part  with  part.  Ex- 
treme specialization  is  therefore  to  be  avoided  at  all  times. 

During  the  growing  period,  when  plasticity  is  greatest,  extreme 
and  permanent  specialization  is  much  more  readily  produced 
than  in  adult  life,  when  plasticity  is  less  and  parts  are  already 
normally  developed.  It  may  be  even  questioned  whether,  in 
growing  children,  all  specialization  is  not  overspecialization. 
Boys  who  specialize  in  a  single  form  of  athletics  at  an  early  age 
in  the  secondary  schools  are  likely  to  fail  in  college  and  univer- 
sity contests. 

On  the  general  principle  that  development  should  accompany 
or  follow  growth,  it  is  probably  best  for  children  to  have  more 
exercise  of  one  part  at  one  time  and  of  others  at  another ;  hence 
the  tendency  often  noticed  in  children  to  specialize  in  one  direc- 
tion for  awhile,  then  in  another,  is  probably  a  good  thing.  Such 
specialization  is  directed  by  play  and  occupation  interests,  but 
is  probably  really  determined  largely  by  growth  and  develop- 
ment changes.  Such  specialization  is  usually  temporary  and  in 
accord  with  the  natural  order  of  growth  and  development ;  hence, 
it  is  not  injurious  or  disturbing. 

If  we  knew  the  natural  order  in  which  the  nerve  and  muscle 
centers  grow  and  develop,  we  could  perhaps  devise  physical 
and  mental  exercises  that  would  be  most  favorable  to  perfect 
development  at  each  stage  of  life.  In  the  absence  of  such  knowl- 
edge any  attempt  at  special  training  during  the  growing  period 
may  interfere  with  the  natural  order  of  development,  and  dis- 
turb instead  of  promote  harmony  of  function. 

In  all  schools  certain  physical  and  mental  activities  are  per- 
formed over  and  over  every  day ;  hence,  with  reference  to  all  the 
child's  powers  there  is  a  great  deal  of  specialization,  though  the 
training  is  intended  to  be  general  rather  than  special.     It  is 


44  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

altogether  probable,  therefore,  that  in  giving  children  the  train- 
ing they  will  need  in  later  Uf  e,  at  a  time  when  they  are  in  an  earlier 
stage  of  development,  we  are  to  a  considerable  extent  interfering 
with  their  natural  order  of  development. 

The  studies  of  Bryan,  Hancock,  and  others  have  demonstrated 
what  is  evident  to  every  close  observer,  that,  in  general,  children 
use  the  larger  muscle  groups  earlier  than  those  concerned  in  finely 
adjusted  movements.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  large  num- 
ber of  finely  adjusted  movements  required  in  making  small 
letters  accurately  at  an  early  age  must  result  in  a  specialization 
of  the  smaller  nerve  and  muscle  centers  long  before  their  natural 
time  of  development.  Poor  writing  and  drawing,  which  nearly 
always  appear  in  about  the  sixth  grade,  may  be  partly  the 
effect  of  lack  of  harmony  in  development,  produced  by  the  pre- 
mature or  excessive  training  of  the  finer  muscle  centers. 

In  the  more  purely  mental  sphere  there  is  general  agreement 
among  students  of  children  that  children  form  crude,  indefinite 
ideas  involving  only  a  few  of  the  most  obvious  acts  of  analysis 
and  synthesis.  These  ideas  become  more  exact  and  definite 
with  increased  experience,  just  as  movements  become  more 
accurate  and  definite  with  practice. 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  detailed  analyses 
and  exact  definitions  so  often  required  of  young  children  are 
opposed  to  the  natural  order  of  brain  development,  and  therefore 
destructive  of  interest  and  disturbing  to  the  natural  processes 
of  mental  growth. 

As  the  science  of  child  study  progresses,  such  interference 
with  the  natural  processes  of  physical  and  mental  development 
should  become  less  and  less.  In  the  meantime,  children  should 
have  plenty  of  opportunity  to  get  an  all-round  physical  and 
mental  development  from  their  plays  and  games,  as  a  correc- 
tive of  whatever  injurious  specialization  is  being  produced  in 
school. 


PHYSICAL   GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT  45 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  If  all  children  had  their  period  of  rapid  growth  at  the  same  age,  could 
the  period  of  rapid  growth  be  shorter  generally  in  individuals  than  in  the 
table?  Since  some  children  begin  to  grow  rapidly  earlier  than  others,  may 
it  be  possible  that  individuals  usually  grow  more  rapidly  and  for  a  shorter 
time  than  appears  from  tables  of  average  growth  and  yet  the  tables  be  cor- 
rect ?  Compare  the  growth  of  yourself  or  others  with  tables  and  see  if  such 
is  the  case. 

2.  Have  pupils  mention  individuals  of  large  or  small  size,  and  give  prob- 
able cause. 

3.  From  observations  and  tables,  report  as  many  marked  changes  in  size 
or  shape  of  parts  with  age,  also  as  many  changes  in  physiological  processes  as 
possible. 

4.  Give  illustrations  of  growth  of  parts  due  to  special  exercise,  or  lack  of 
growth  due  to  want  of  exercise.  Why  do  insurance  companies  ask  the  height 
and  weight  of  those  they  insure  ? 

5.  Observe  how  very  young  children  throw,  and  how  they  make  the  move- 
ments of  scribbling  when  they  first  attempt  to  draw,  as  bearing  on  the  ques- 
tion of  what  muscle  centers  develop  first. 

Mention  specifically  school  exercises  that  require  too  much  fine  muscular 
adjustment.  Why  is  it  more  injurious  to  children  than  to  adults  to  work  in 
factories?    At  what  age  is  it  best  to  begin  giving  special  training  only? 

6.  The  body  of  an  adult  is  58.5  per  cent  water,  that  of  an  infant  74.7 
per  cent,  and  of  a  fetus  94.5  per  cent,  while  the  amount  of  mineral  matter  in 
the  bones  of  an  infant  is  2.24  per  cent,  and  in  an  adult  7.29  per  cent.  What 
do  these  facts  signify  as  regards  growth  and  development  ?     Give  others. 

7.  May  awkwardness  and  growing  pains  be  explained  by  inequality  in 
growth  of  parts,  as  of  bones  and  tendons,  and  by  want  of  proper  relation 
between  growth  and  development? 

Can  you  see  how  growth  changes  might  produce  changes  in  such  habits  as 
writing? 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  growth,  read  Donaldson,  Growth  of  the  Brain:  Porter,  Am.  Phys.  Ed. 
Rev.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  155-173,  or  Trans.  Acad.  Sci.,  St.  Louis,  1893,  Vol.  VI, 
pp.  161-181 ;  Gilbert,  Yale  Studies,  Vol.  II,  pp.  40-100;  Mrs.  W.  S. 
Hall,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  332-342 ;  Christopher,  Reports  on  Child- 
Study  Investigations,  reprints  from  the  reports  of  the  Chicago  Board  of 
Education  for  1898-1899,  1899-1900,  1900-1901 ;   Hastings,  Manual^ 


46  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

chaps,  iii  and  iv,  or  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  1076-1084;  Burk,  Growth  of 
Children  in  Height  and  Weight,  p.  73,  reprinted  from  Am.  Jr.  Psych., 
Vol.  IX,  pp.  253-326,  and,  if  desired,  other  references  given  by  Burk. 

On  growth  in  relation  to  health,  see  Key,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  XXXVIII, 
p.  107  ;  Christopher,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  324-335  ;  Jr.  Ch.  and  Ad., 
July,  1902,  pp.  190-199;  O'Shea,  Jr.  Ped.,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  299-316. 

On  diffusion  of  impulses  and  the  effects  of  exercise,  see  Davis,  Yale  Studies, 
Vol.  VI,  pp.  6-50,  or  Science  (N.  S.),  Vol,  X,  p.  20;  Johnson,  Yale 
Studies,  VoL  VI,  pp.  51-103 ;  Scripture,  Yale  Studies,  Vol.  II,  pp.  114- 
119. 

On  the  natural  order  of  development  in  relation  to  exercise,  see  Burk,  Ped. 
Sent.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  5-64 ;  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  1067-1076  ;  Patrick,  Pop. 
Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LIV,  pp.  382-391 ;  Gulick,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LIII, 
PP-  793~8o5 ;  Bryan,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  125-204;  Hancock, 
Ped.  Sent.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  9-29 ;  Sargent,  Am.  Physical  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol. 
VIII,  pp.  57-69;  Gulick,  Am.  Physical  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  70-74. 

On  arrest  of  development,  see  Dawson,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  188- 
197 ;  Harris,  Education,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  453-466. 

Later  References 

A  complete  bibliography  will  be  found  in  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education 
publication  on  Growth  by  B.  T.  Baldwin.    No.  10,  1914. 


CHAPTER  IV 

NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS 

KINDS   OF   NATIVE  MOVEMENTS 

Man  can  make  machines  that  move  about  and  do  various 
kinds  of  work,  but  they  all  need  a  person  to  start  and  direct 
them.  Nature,  however,  makes  animal  machines  that  move 
around  and  do  various  things  without  any  one  to  superintend 
their  movements.  These  animal  machines  must  be  self -running, 
self-repairing,  and  capable  of  moving  so  as  to  secure  food  and 
avoid  danger. 

The  movements  necessary  to  change  food  into  the  energy  that 
keeps  the  internal  machinery  in  running  order  are  carried  on  al- 
most wholly  within  the  body,  and  are  therefore  called  automatic. 
All  the  movements  of  the  muscles  of  the  lungs,  heart,  blood- 
vessels, and  intestines  concerned  in  the  processes  of  respiration, 
circulation,  and  digestion  are  of  this  continuous,  rhythmic,  and 
self-perpetuating  character.  They  depend  mainly  upon  the 
relation  of  different  parts  of  the  organism  to  each  other,  and  very 
slightly  upon  the  relation  of  the  organism  to  its  environment. 

In  breathing,  the  stimulus  of  the  air  varies  with  the  movements 
of  the  lungs ;  hence,  the  action  is  relatively  constant  and  auto- 
matic. Such  acts  as  walking  are  largely  automatic  since  the 
movement  of  one  limb  serves  as  a  stimulus  to  the  motion  of  the 
other  and  thus  walking  continues  without  any  fresh  external 
stimulus. 

The  movements  involved  in  securing  food  and  escaping  danger, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  partially  or  wholly  originated  by  some- 

47 


48  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

thing  in  the  surroundings.  In  other  words,  they  are  called 
forth  by  an  external  stimulus,  and  hence  are  not  self-continuing 
or  automatic.  Some  are  simple  or  reflex,  and  others  complex  or 
instinctive. 

The  simple  or  reflex  movements  are,  as  a  rule,  the  response 
of  a  single  part  of  the  organism  to  a  simple  and  not  regularly 
repeated  stimulus  to  that  part.  Examples  are,  the  winking  of 
the  eye  when  the  lid  is  touched,  or  jerking  the  hand  away  when 
it  is  pricked.  Such  movements  occur  whenever  the  appropriate 
stimulus  is  given,  whatever  the  internal  condition  of  the  animal. 
The  mechanism  controlling  them  is  very  accurate,  for  just  as 
the  nickel-in-the-slot  machine  will  not  respond  to  a  penny,  so 
the  hand  will  not  be  jerked  away  when  touched,  but  only  when 
injuriously  stimulated,  as  by  a  prick  or  burn.  All  parts  of  the 
body  are  thus  protected  by  reflex  movements. 

The  complex  or  instinctive  movements  are  a  response  of  the 
whole  or  a  considerable  part  of  the  organism  to  some  external 
stimulus,  such  as  taking,  chewing,  and  swallowing  food,  and  the 
movements  of  avoiding  danger  by  hiding,  running,  or  fighting. 
These  movements,  though  initiated  by  an  appropriate  stimulus 
as  are  reflexes,  are  to  some  extent  dependent  upon  internal  con- 
ditions or  stimuli.  An  infant  will  suck  whenever  his  lips  are 
touched,  if  there  is  also  the  internal  condition  or  stimulus  of 
hunger,  but  not  if  the  stomach  is  full  or  out  of  order ;  and  a  hen 
will  sit  on  a  nest  if  she  is  in  a  broody  condition,  but  not  otherwise. 
Instinctive  movements  differ  from  reflex  movements  also  in  the 
fact  that  they  are  for  the  good  of  the  whole  body  instead  of  for 
some  one  part.  Winking  the  eye  and  jerking  away  the  hand 
protect  only  the  eye  and  hand,  while  taking  food  benefits  not  the 
mouth  but  the  whole  body,  and  running  saves  not  merely  the 
legs  but  the  whole  animal  from  danger. 

Instinctive  movements,  such  as  sucking,  are  not  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  a  combination  of  reflexes.     When  the  tongue 


NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS         49 

and  Kps  of  an  infant  are  rendered  sensitive  by  hunger,  contact 
with  any  object  causes  them  to  close  around  it  reflexively.  This 
movement  affects  the  breathing  reflex  and  causes  sucking  move- 
ments. The  stimulus  of  milk  on  the  tongue  and  the  throat  calls 
forth  the  reflex  movements  of  swallowing.  Loeb  has  thus 
analyzed  a  number  of  instincts  into  a  series  of  reflexes,  and  it  is 
probable  that  all  instincts  resemble  a  combination  of  reflexes 
in  which  the  reaction  of  one  part  excites  others,  with  the  result 
that  the  animal  acts  as  a  whole  and  for  the  good  of  the  whole. 

TWO  VIEWS   OF   NATIVE   REACTIONS 

According  to  the  modern  behavioristic  view  each  animal  is  a 
mechanism  for  responding  to  external  stimuli  in  ways  character- 
istic of  the  species.  Thorndike  conceives  of  native  movements 
as  in  the  nature  of  many  specific  responses  to  various  differing 
situations  each  of  which  is  to  be  studied  separately.  For  a  close 
scientific  analysis  and  study  of  behavior  this  view  is  favorable 
to  the  securing  of  definite  and  accurate  data.  Such  infinity  of 
detail  is,  however,  confusing;  hence,  there  is  good  reason  for 
making  some  sort  of  classification  or  grouping  of  these  specific 
reactions,  at  least  in  presenting  the  matter  to  beginners.  For 
instance,  it  is  much  easier  to  think  of  the  reactions  connected 
with  the  getting  of  food,  the  avoidance  of  danger  or  the  securing 
of  mates,  in  separate  groups  under  a  specific  name,  instead  of 
considering  each  of  the  many  reactions  separately. 

Again  it  is  not  only  simpler  to  thus  view  native  reactions  but 
it  makes  it  possible  for  the  scientist  to  interpret  more  successfully 
the  data  that  he  has  collected  regarding  specific  situations  and 
responses.  Figuratively  speaking  he  can  study  the  effect  of 
forests  on  the  landscape  of  life  as  well  as  observe  individual  trees. 
To  the  general  principle  of  the  survival  value  of  special  reactions 
may  be  added  through  classification,  the  idea  of  special  needs  to 
be  met  by  certain  groups  of  special  reactions. 


50  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

Those  who  regard  these  needs  to  be  met  as  of  more  importance 
than  the  specific  character  of  the  reaction  make  use  of  the  term 
''instinct"  and  designate  by  special  names  the  various  impulses 
to  action  that  arise  from  the  needs  of  the  various  species  of  ani- 
mals. According  to  this  view  instincts  furnish  the  impulse  to 
all  forms  of  animal  and  human  activity  whether  the  movements 
which  meet  the  ends  needed  for  survival  are  native  or  acquired. 

Every  living  creature  strives  to  secure  food,  and  food  of  a  cer- 
tain kind,  animal  or  vegetable  according  to  its  structure.  Each 
becomes  restless  and  crawls,  walks,  swims,  or  flies  about  when 
hungry,  and  when  food  is  found,  seizes  it  in  a  more  or  less  char- 
acteristic way.  In  the  higher  animals  and  especially  in  man 
there  may  develop  a  variety  of  ways  of  securing  food  and  of 
getting  it  into  the  mouth.  The  specific  native  movements  for 
taking  food  are  instinctive  in  the  stricter  and  more  objective 
meaning  of  the  word,  but  it  is  convenient  not  only  to  designate 
such  movements  as  instinctive  but  also  to  regard  the  hunger 
impulse,  more  or  less  specialized  for  certain  kinds  of  food  and 
varying  with  the  condition  of  the  body,  as  an  instinct  leading 
to  the  learning  of  other  specific  modes  of  reaction.  This  view 
not  only  simplifies  the  thought  of  native  movements  but  aids 
in  interpreting  them  and  helps  to  explain  why  so  many  new  move- 
ments for  satisfying  needs  are  developed.  Furthermore  in  study- 
ing the  development  of  human  beings  this  view  helps  to  explain 
the  new  phases  in  the  emotional  and  intellectual  life  at  different 
ages  and  the  resulting  changes  in  conduct,  as  due  to  changing 
impulses  arising  from  the  variations  in  needs,  as  the  other  does 
not. 

One  danger  arising  from  this  view  is  that  many  vaguely  de- 
fined impulses  shall  be  called  instincts  and  no  attempt  made  to 
analyze  them  and  determine  their  exact  nature  and  mode  of 
manifestation.  Another  danger  to  be  guarded  against  is  that 
instincts  shall  be  regarded  as  separate  entities  similar  to  the 


NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS         51 

"faculties"  of  the  older  psychology,  when  in  reality  they  are 
merely  phases  of  the  "will  to  live,"  which  we  isolate,  in  thought, 
from  the  whole  of  which  they  are  a  part,  in  order  to  simplify 
our  problem. 

Internal  impulses  or  instincts  are  always  manifested  in  more 
or  less  definite  and  fixed  forms  of  reaction  to  special  situations, 
as  well  as  in  the  general  tendency  to  a  variety  of  movements,  and 
this  should  not  be  forgotten  by  those  who  use  the  term  "  instinct." 
On  the  whole,  the  author  believes  that  more  of  the  truths  of 
human  development  may  be  presented  clearly  and  intelligently 
to  students  by  a  classification  of  native  reactions  under  the  head 
of  fear  instincts,  social  instincts,  etc.,  and  by  emphasizing  the 
inner  impulses  of  children  at  different  ages,  than  by  an  exclusive 
study  of  special  situations  and  responses  at  different  ages.  The 
latter  view  should,  however,  receive  as  much  attention  from 
students  as  time  and  capacity  permit. 

In  one  respect  the  difference  between  the  two  views  of  instinct 
is  more  than  one  of  emphasis.  In  the  "situation  response" 
theory  there  seems  to  be  little  room  for  what  may  be  called  gen- 
eral responses  either  native  or  acquired.  Yet  there  certainly 
are  many  instances  of  approach  and  avoidance  that  do  not  seem 
to  be  of  a  specific  character.  In  the  case  of  acquired  movements 
this  is  especially  marked.  After  a  child  has  grasped  several 
objects  of  varying  shape  in  various  positions,  he  has  what  may  be 
called  a  general  power  of  volimtary  control  which  enables  him 
to  grasp  a  new  object  in  a  new  position  with  considerable  success. 
A  person  who  has  practiced  writing  with  one  hand  only  can 
write  pretty  well  not  only  with  the  same  hand  in  another  position 
but  with  the  other  hand  or  with  his  foot  or  with  his  nose,  the  first 
time  that  he  tries  it.  In  the  more  complex  activities  of  intellec- 
tual processes  generalization  is  very  prominent.  The  essential 
difference  between  these  two  views  is,  then,  that  according  to 
one  view  there  are  only  specific  connections  between  parts,  each 


|-;^5^  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

of  which  makes  specific  responses  possible,  while  according  to 
the  other  theory  there  are  at  first  general  tendencies  to  response 
not  specifically  determined  in  character.  Also,  out  of  specific 
responses  to  situations  develop  general  powers  of  response. 

From  the  physiological  point  of  view  the  claim  that  native 
tendencies  and  movements  are  general  as  well  as  special  finds 
support. 

It  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  nerve  physiology  that  the 
excitation  of  any  nerve  center,  especially  if  it  is  intense  and  pro- 
longed, is  diffused  to  other  parts  and  ultimately  to  the  whole  of 
the  nervous  system.  The  chief  preventive  of  general  and  free 
spreading  of  nervous  impulses  at  first  is  differentiation  dependent 
on  instincts.  These  make  certain  lines  of  discharge  to  muscles 
more  open.  Some  paths  of  discharge  are  so  open  in  young 
animals  and  children  that  specific  reflex  and  instinctive  move- 
ments are  made  at  once,  while  others  are  less  open  and  are  used 
only  slightly  if  at  all,  except  when  the  need  is  not  met  by  the 
first  movements.  Continued  excitement  gives  rise  to  various 
movements  toward  escaping  or  securing  food,  some  of  which  are 
definite  and  others  of  a  more  indefinite  chance  character.  Any 
movement  that  proves  successful  is  likely  to  be  made  again  when 
the  same  circumstances  recur  and  thus  habits  of  reacting  in 
specific  ways  are  developed.  In  all  learning  there  is  some  spread- 
ing of  excitation  and  incipient  movements  of  various  parts; 
hence  there  is  always  some  development  of  general  control  of 
muscles  while  specific  movements  are  being  learned.  In  the 
cortex  of  the  brain  during  mental  operations  there  is  probably 
much  more  spreading  of  excitation  from  centers  of  more  intense 
activity  to  all  parts  of  the  brain  so  that  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
general  development  resulting  from  special  activity  of  parts. 

The  phenomena  of  mental  grasp,  "fringes  of  consciousness," 
associations  of  similarity,  classification,  and  generalization  can- 
not be  explained  on  the  theory  of  specific  coimections  only, 


NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS         53 

There  is  therefore  good  ground  in  the  facts  of  physiology  and  of 
conscious  processes  for  believing  that  instinctive  needs  dependent 
upon  bodily  structure  and  conditions  may  result  not  only  in 
some  specific  reactions,  but  also  in  many  indefinite  movements, 
and  that,  on  the  other  hand,  all  learning  of  specific  things  results 
in  some  development  of  general  power  of  doing  those  and  other 
things.  The  stimulus  and  response  theory  is  therefore  an  im- 
portant but  only  a  partial  explanation  of  what  takes  place  in 
instinctive  and  habitual  reactions.  There  are  always  other 
reactions  actual  and  incipient  which  constitute  a  reserve  of  gen- 
eral power  and  tendency. 

In  another  respect  modern  physiology  is  unfavorable  to  the 
theory  of  special  responses  dependent  upon  the  connection 
between  nerve  cells.  It  is  becoming  more  and  more  evident 
that  there  are  certain  physiological  norms  peculiar  to  each  species 
of  animal  which  vary  somewhat  with  age  but  are  only  slightly 
influenced  by  external  conditions.  Among  these  norms  are 
the  bodily  temperature,  the  pulse  rate  and  blood  pressure,  the 
character  of  the  unexpired  air  in  the  lungs  and  certain  chemical 
conditions  of  the  blood.  It  is  also  known  that  action  is  modified 
not  only  by  drugs  but  also  by  the  activity  of  ductless  glands 
and  their  products.  These  facts  and  the  changes  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  blood  accompanying  emotional  excitement  all  give 
good  ground  for  believing  that  the  instincts  of  each  species  of 
animal  are  closely  related  to  its  physiological  norms.  These 
norms  are  also  doubtless  the  basis  of  trophisms  and  of  native 
emotional  reactions. 

INSTINCTS  AND  STRUCTURE 

The  relation  of  instinct  to  intelligence  or  reason  has  long 
attracted  wondering  attention,  but  until  recently  little  notice 
was  taken  of  the  relation  of  physical  structure  to  instinct.  When 
the  matter  is  once  suggested,  however,  no  extended  observation 


54  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

is  needed  to  show  that  the  instincts  of  any  animal  correspond 
to  its  structure.  Cats  do  not  try  to  fly  or  dive  when  chased  by 
dogs,  nor  ducks  to  climb  trees  or  fight  with  their  claws.  Turtles 
do  not  attempt  to  run  from  danger,  or  rabbits  to  curl  up  in  their 
skins  for  protection.  The  peculiar  structure  of  teeth  and  stomach 
in  cows  goes  with  a  strong  instinct  to  eat  grass,  and  in  the  lion, 
with  an  equally  strong  instinct  to  eat  meat. 

Even  in  the  life  of  the  same  animals  new  instincts  develop  as 
new  structures  are  formed  or  perfected.  Birds  do  not  show  the 
flying  instinct  until  their  wings  develop,  nor  the  nesting  instinct 
until  they  are  ready  to  produce  young.  Before  their  teeth  and 
claws  are  developed,  young  lions  avoid,  rather  than  attack,  large 
animals. 

There  is  a  good  reason,  therefore,  for  believing  that  every 
instinct  of  each  species  of  animals  has  its  basis  in  some  pecuUarity 
of  structure  and  some  bodily  condition.  A  slight  difference 
in  beak,  claw,  or  wing  of  birds  often  makes  a  vast  difference  in 
the  form  in  which  the  instinct  to  catch  food,  sleep,  build  nests, 
or  escape  danger,  shaU  be  manifested,  while  the  character  of  the 
digestive  organs  and  their  secretions  greatly  influences  the  food 
reactions.  A  bird  with  the  bill  of  a  humming-bird  and  the 
instinct  of  a  flycatcher,  or  one  with  the  instinct  of  a  woodpecker 
and  the  beak  of  a  grosbeak,  would  be  at  a  serious  disadvantage 
in  securing  food. 

Sometimes  the  difference  in  the  actions  of  two  species  of  ani- 
mals is  not  easily  accounted  for  by  observation  of  external  dif- 
ferences in  structure,  but  in  those  cases  a  fuller  knowledge  of 
the  internal  anatomy  of  the  animals,  especially  of  the  glandular 
and  the  nervous  system,  would  probably  reveal  the  basis  of 
the  difference.  Every  instinctive  act  therefore  presupposes  a 
mechanism  and  a  bodily  condition  appropriate  to  its  perform- 
ance and  in  young  animals  these  must  be  developed  before  the 
instinct  appears. 


NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS         55 
INSTINCT   AND   CONSCIOUSNESS 

We  all  know  that  the  automatic  movements  are  carried  on 
without  consciousness.  The  apparatus  for  these  movements 
works  best  when  not  interfered  with  by  consciousness.  A  little 
attention  to  the  matter  will  also  show  us  that  the  reflex  move- 
ments of  the  eye  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  hand  are  the  results 
of  a  definite  mechanism  which  works  without  being  started  by 
consciousness.  In  fact,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  consciousness 
to  prevent  such  movements  even  when  they  are  foreseen.  It  is 
true  that  the  fact  of  a  stimulus  being  received  and  responded  to 
by  the  hand  or  eyelid,  is  usually  reported  to  consciousness,  but 
this  is  after  rather  than  before  the  movement  begins. 

That  instinctive  movements  are  also  dependent  upon  mechanism 
rather  than  consciousness  is  not  always  so  readily  admitted. 
Yet  the  person  who  jumps  at  a  loud  sound  or  the  sudden  ap- 
pearance of  a  frightful  object,  often  says  he  cannot  help  it,  and 
a  moment  after  the  fright  may  laugh  at  his  own  foolishness. 
When  a  cat  races  after  a  ball  or  a  mouse,  he  does  not  think  he 
wants  it  before  trying  to  catch  it,  but  the  sight  of  the  moving 
object  sets  the  chasing  apparatus  in  motion  at  once.  In  the  same 
way  the  sight  of  a  hawk  excites  the  mechanism  for  making 
danger  signals  in  the  hen,  and  this  sound  causes  the  crouching 
and  keeping-quiet  apparatus  to  work  in  the  young  chicks.  Per- 
sons and  animals  do  not  have  to  learn  to  do  these  things  any 
more  than  they  have  to  learn  to  breathe,  and  when  performed 
suddenly  they  are  just  as  independent  of  consciousness. 

The  mechanical  character  of  reflex  and  instinctive  reactions 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  a  decapitated  snake  will  coil 
around  a  red-hot  iron  as  readily  as  around  a  stick.  In  this,  as 
in  other  cases,  there  is  evidently  a  definite  mechanism  which  is 
set  in  operation  by  a  certain  stimulus  or  any  stimulus  like  it. 
The  dependence  of  instinctive  movements  upon  structure  rather 


$6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

than  consciousness  is  also  shown  with  remarkable  clearness  by 
Jennings's  experiments  upon  paramecia,  one  of  the  simpler  forms 
of  animal  life.  Their  great  activity  in  moving  around,  taking 
particles  of  food,  gathering  in  companies,  approaching  CO2  and 
avoiding  acids,  gives  the  impression  that  their  movements  are 
directed  by  consciousness,  and  that  they  exercise  choice.  Care- 
ful experiment  and  observation,  however,  show  that  it  is  chiefly 
a  matter  of  mechanism.  Their  cilia  are  in  almost  continual 
motion,  and  thus  their  bodies  are  driven  forward.  If  they  ap- 
proach acid,  the  ciUa  reverse,  and  thus  they  back  off  from  that 
injurious  substance.  If,  however,  the  acid  is  made  to  approach 
them  from  behind,  the  effect  is  the  same  upon  the  ciUa,  and 
instead  of  moving  away  from  the  fatal  substance  they  enter  it. 
CO2  has  the  opposite  effect  upon  the  cilia,  consequently  when 
moving  forward  they  enter  and  remain  in  drops  of  that.  Choice 
of  food  is  also  lacking,  for  they  take  in  every  small  particle  they 
touch,  whether  it  has  food  value  or  not.  Careful  observation 
thus  shows  that  all  their  actions  are  largely  mechanical. 

Loeb  has  in  a  similar  way  analyzed  the  instincts  of  a  number 
of  animals  into  mechanical  reflexes.  The  apparatus  for  stinging 
is  in  the  last  segment  of  the  abdomen  of  a  bee  and  works  success- 
fully when  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  body  if  the  under  side 
is  touched. 

Fixed  instincts,  in  man,  work  almost  mechanically,  as  do  many 
habits.  Not  only  does  consciousness  not  direct  the  activity, 
but  so  long  as  everything  goes  smoothly,  there  is  little  or  no 
consciousness.  Where  acts  are  to  be  repeated  over  and  over, 
and  the  same  kind  of  movement  made  in  response  to  the  same 
stimulus,  consciousness  is  unnecessary.  It  is  only  when  several 
modes  of  response  are  possible  that  conscious  activity  is  of  any 
use.  Such  activity  then  distinguishes  the  different  possibilities 
and  chooses  the  one  that  past  experience  has  shown  will  give 
the  most  desirable  results.    When  a  new  animal  is  seen  by  another, 


NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS         57 

the  possibilities  of  friendly  advance,  of  hasty  retreat,  or  of 
vigorous  pursuit  are  suggested,  and  consciousness  decides  in  the 
light  of  past  experience  with  similar  animals  which  form  of  re- 
action shall  be  made.  If,  however,  the  animal  which  appears 
is  a  hereditary  enemy  of  superior  power,  the  action  of  fleeing  is 
mechanically  performed  with  very  little  consciousness,  unless 
flight  is  in  some  way  impeded,  when  other  possibilities,  such  as 
fighting,  hiding,  or  feigning  death,  are  suggested. 

An  animal  having  only  one  possibility  of  response  in  a  given 
situation  could  make  no  use  of  consciousness.  Only  those 
animals  which  are  sufficiently  complex  to  have  more  than  one 
mode  of  response  to  a  given  stimulus  can  profit  by  conscious 
intelligence.  It  is  reasonable,  therefore,  to  suppose  that  instead 
of  consciousness  making  new  movements  possible,  the  acquisition 
of  new  possibilities  of  movement  helps  to  develop  conscious 
intelligence,  especially  in  animals  and  children.  With  much 
truth,  therefore,  we  may  say  that  man  makes  many  movements, 
not  because  of  his  great  intelligence,  but  that  he  has  great  in- 
telligence because  of  his  many  possibilities  of  movement.  The 
marvelous  skill  of  the  bee  in  constructing  his  comb  according 
to  the  best  engineering  principles  is  probably  due,  not  to  his 
intelligence,  but  to  his  mechanical  structure,  which  renders  it 
less  easy  or  perhaps  impossible  for  him  to  build  otherwise. 

Instincts,  in  so  far  as  they  are  purely  instinctive,  are  always 
blind.  Speaking  figuratively,  it  is  only  when  two  instinctive 
tendencies  are  aroused  by  a  stimulus  that  the  eye  of  conscious 
intelligence  is  opened  to  choose  in  the  light  of  past  experience 
the  most  favorable  reaction. 

In  the  case  of  animals  like  fishes  and  insects  with  only  a  few 
fixed  instincts,  the  light  of  experience  often  reveals  to  the  dim 
eye  of  consciousness  but  one  mode  of  response,  and  the  baited 
hook  is  again  taken  or  the  scorching  light  again  approached. 

In  higher  animals,  like  chickens  and  children,  a  single  flash 


58  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

from  past  experience,  such  as  the  unpleasant  feeling  of  a  furry 
caterpillar  to  the  bill,  or  of  a  hot  stove  to  the  hand,  may  reveal 
to  the  clearer  eye  of  consciousness  a  new  and  more  desirable 
mode  of  reaction  than  that  first  used.  The  fewer  the  experiences 
needed  to  produce  the  change  in  the  reaction  necessary  to 
secure  the  most  favorable  results,  and  the  longer  the  time  before 
the  light  enkindled  by  past  experience  is  extinguished,  the  greater 
is  the  intelligence  in  animal  or  child. 

Not  extraordinary  skill  in  doing  the  same  thing  in  the  same 
way  all  through  life,  by  one  generation  after  another,  as  in  the 
case  of  animals  with  fixed  instincts,  but  ability  to  act  in  a  variety 
of  ways  and  to  learn  quickly  by  experience,  is  evidence  of  intel- 
ligence. Man  has  more  instincts  than  any  other  animal ;  but 
the  variety  of  action  possible  to  him,  and  the  modifications  pro- 
duced by  experience,  make  it  seem  as  if  he  had  none.  We  must 
remember,  however,  that  his  purely  instinctive  actions  are  just 
as  blind  as  those  of  the  bee,  and  that  consciousness  is  useful  only 
after  there  has  been  experience,  and  when  there  is  a  possibility 
of  more  than  one  reaction. 

Conscious  processes  are  most  distinctive  in  that  they  facilitate 
the  reversal  of  the  usual  relations  between  stimulus  and  reaction. 
Animals  experience  a  need  and  are  confronted  with  a  stimulus, 
then  react  in  an  appropriate  way.  Man,  in  voluntary  action, 
images  the  result  to  be  gained,  then  acts.  He  represents  many 
of  the  needs  and  situations  to  be  met  and  performs  the  necessary 
actions  of  preparing  food,  guarding  against  danger,  providing 
for  the  protection  of  offspring,  etc.,  before  reaction  is  necessary, 
because  he  can  substitute  conscious  images  or  representations 
of  needs  and  situations  for  the  real  ones,  much  better  than  can 
animals.  The  acts  of  animals  are  often  anticipatory,  but  they 
possess  little  of  man's  facility  for  consciously  representing  past 
and  future  conditions  and  actions;  hence,  animals  necessarily 
live  and  act  chiefly  in  the  present. 


NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS         59 
CONDITIONS  AFFECTING   THE   USEFULNESS  OF   INSTINCTS 

Evidently  every  species  of  animal  which  does  not  in  general 
act  for  its  own  good  would,  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  soon 
become  extinct ;  hence  instincts  are  in  general  useful.  What  is 
for  the  good  of  a  young  animal  depends  upon  (i)  structure  of 
the  animal,  (2)  its  surroundings,  (3)  its  temporary  bodily  con- 
dition, (4)  its  age,  and  (5)  the  instincts  of  its  parents. 

(i)  If  dogs  had  the  instinct  to  dive  when  threatened  with 
danger,  and  fish  to  jump  out  on  dry  land,  neither  would  long 
survive  as  a  species.  If  the  puny  rabbit  had  the  fighting  in- 
stinct of  the  bulldog  instead  of  the  running  instinct  of  the  deer, 
his  career  would  have  been  cut  short  long  before  this.  This 
merely  emphasizes  the  truth  already  stated,  that  instinct  must 
conform  to  structure  in  every  species  of  animal. 

(2)  What  form  of  action  is  favorable  depends  upon  the  en- 
vironment. Birds  in  the  south  need  to  go  north  when  it  gets 
warmer ;  but  if  they  are  in  the  north,  they  need  to  go  south  when 
it  gets  colder.  If  the  climate  is  too  wet  for  an  animal,  he  needs 
an  instinct  that  impels  him  to  seek  dry  places ;  but  if  it  is  too 
dry,  he  should  have  an  instinctive  tendency  to  seek  water. 
Some  animals  have  two  fixed  types  of  instincts  with  action  suited 
to  the  two  kinds  of  environment  with  which  they  are  likely  to 
come  in  contact.  All  muskrat  houses  built  in  pools  are  on  the 
same  general  plan,  while  a  different,  but  equally  constant  form 
is  used  when  the  nests  are  built  in  streams. 

Those  instincts  of  animals  which  are  useful  to  them  in  their 
natural  environment  may  become  destructive  to  them  when 
the  environment  is  changed  suddenly  by  geological  agencies  or 
by  the  entrance  of  man.  Thus  lights  destroy  countless  insects 
and  birds,  and  man  makes  use  of  the  curiosity  of  animals  con- 
cerning strange  motionless  objects,  in  luring  them  to  destruction, 
and  of  the  feeding  instinct,  to  attract  them  by  baits  to  his  hooks 


6o  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

and  traps.  Those  animals  which  most  quickly  adapt  themselves 
to  these  changes  in  environment  are  the  ones  which  survive  in 
spite  of  man's  cunning  attacks.  Every  instinct  must  have  de- 
veloped in  an  environment  where  it  was  useful ;  but  if  the  present 
environment  is  different,  the  instinct  may  be  useless  or  injurious, 
and  thus  handicap  or  destroy  instead  of  help  to  preserve. 

If  individual  animals  of  slightly  different  structure,  aided  by 
their  readiness  in  profiting  by  experience  and  possibly  assisted  by 
chance,  vary  their  actions  and  develop  successful  ways  of  meeting 
the  new  situations  in  their  changed  environment,  they  survive 
and  produce  descendants,  while  the  others  soon  perish.  Thus 
may  a  species  be  modified  in  structure  while  either  a  new  form  of 
instinctive  action  is  established  as  a  characteristic  of  the  species, 
or  the  quality  of  individual  adaptability,  which  is  the  chief 
element  in  intelligent  action,  is  increased. 

(3)  The  condition  of  the  animal  at  the  moment  also  determines 
the  usefulness  of  his  actions.  An  animal  which  would  turn 
away  from  food  when  his  stomach  was  empty,  and  eat  it  when 
his  stomach  was  already  filled,  would  not  long  survive.  A  deer 
which  had  a  strong  impulse  to  fight  just  after  shedding  his  horns 
instead  of  when  they  were  well  grown  and  firm,  would  be  at  a 
disadvantage  in  preserving  himself  and  his  species. 

(4)  It  is  evident  that  an  animal  when  young  and  helpless  and 
with  parents  to  care  for  it  needs  to  follow  a  different  course  of 
action  from  that  required  when  well  grown  and  dependent  upon 
its  own  exertions  for  food  and  safety;  while  when  mature  and 
with  young  to  care  for,  its  instinctive  action  must  be  such  that 
the  species  will  be  perpetuated.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  to 
be  useful,  instincts  must  be  adapted  to  different  ages,  as  well 
as  to  differences  in  structure,  bodily  condition,  and  environment. 

(5)  It  has  been  found  that  in  general  an  animal  at  its  birth 
has  just  enough  instincts  to  preserve  its  life  with  the  aid  of  the 
complementary  instincts  of  its  parents.     For  example,  parent 


NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS         6i 

robins  have  an  instinctive  tendency  to  carry  food  and  put  it  into 
the  mouths  of  their  young;  hence  young  robins  need  only  to 
open  the  mouth  when  the  parent  robin  approaches.  The  young 
chicken,  however,  has  the  instinct  to  approach  and  peck  at  food, 
since  the  mother  hen  has  only  the  instinct  to  find  and  call  atten- 
tion to  it.  The  human  infant  needs  and  has  at  birth  few  instincts, 
because  the  human  parent  has  the  instinctive  tendency  to  care 
for  it  strongly  developed.  Later,  various  instincts  come  into 
prominence  as  they  are  needed. 

FIXED  AND   INDEFINITE   INSTINCTS 

Evidently  instincts  are  useful  just  so  far  as  they  successfully 
adjust  the  action  of  an  animal  to  the  condition  imposed  by  its 
environment,  in  such  a  way  as  to  preserve  the  individual  and 
produce  descendants.  The  actions  which  are  always  or  nearly 
always  useful  to  an  animal  of  a  certain  structure  in  all  environ- 
ments, as,  for  example,  those  of  gathering  honey  and  building 
combs  by  bees,  and  web  spinning  and  fly  catching  by  spiders, 
are  comparatively  though  not  absolutely  fixed  and  imchange- 
able;  while  actions  whose  usefulness  depends  upon  special  cir- 
cumstances are  usually  general  and  indefinite  in  character.  The 
young  chicken  has  a  fixed  mode  of  drinking  which  is  different 
from  that  of  the  duck,  for  instance,  but  its  instinct  to  follow 
moving  objects  is  more  general,  since  it  may  be  specialized  into 
a  tendency  to  follow  a  person  or  a  dog  as  well  as  to  follow  a  hen. 
The  general  instinct  of  fear  is  usually  manifested  in  the  form  of 
fear  of  any  strange  object  that  is  in  any  way  exciting,  and  ex- 
perience specializes  this  into  fear  of  particular  animals,  as  cats 
of  dogs  and  mice  of  cats.  The  fear  shown  by  hens  when  hawks 
sail  over  is  probably  general  rather  than  special,  since  any  large 
bird  or  even  an  object  passing  quickly  overhead,  excites  it. 

Through  the  experience  of  the  ages  and  natural  selection, 
nature  has  prepared  her  children  to  act  in  such  a  way  that  in 


62  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

a  majority  of  cases  they  and  their  descendants  will  be  preserved, 
though  in  exceptional  cases  the  action  may  prove  fatal.  Where 
the  chances  are  nearly  equal  as  to  what  forms  of  reaction  to  cer- 
tain stimuli  will  be  favorable,  the  instinct  is  plastic,  so  that  the 
best  mode  of  reaction  in  the  present  environment  may  be  devel- 
oped by  imitation  and  by  the  individual's  own  experience. 
Even  quite  fixed  instincts  need  to  be  and  are  somewhat  plastic, 
so  that  there  may  be  ready  adaptation  to  changes  in  environ- 
ment. In  past  ages  it  was  universally  advantageous  for  fish 
to  take  all  worms  and  grasshoppers  dropping  into  the  stream ; 
but  when  man  came  on  the  scene  with  hooks,  the  instinct  often 
had  bad  results.  The  native  instinct  to  snap  at  every  worm 
when  hungry  has  not  been  destroyed ;  but  the  more  intelligent 
fish  seem  to  have  had  the  instinct  modified  by  experience,  as 
many  fishermen  can  testify. 

We  therefore  find  some  instincts  that  are  perfect  at  birth, 
and  unchanging  throughout  thousands  of  generations  of  the 
species,  and  others  so  imperfect  at  first  and  so  variable  in  form 
that  they  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  voluntary  acts 
developed  by  individual  experience.  In  general,  the  fixed  in- 
stincts are  more  prominent  in  lower  animals,  and  the  indefinite 
in  the  higher.  This  is  not  so  much  because  the  higher  animal 
has  no  definite  instincts,  but  because  he  has  so  many  general, 
indefinite,  or  undeveloped  ones. 

CONTINUOUS,   TRANSIENT,   AND  PERIODIC  INSTINCTS 

Since  the  structure  of  an  animal  and  the  usefulness  of  any 
form  of  action  vary  with  age,  we  should  expect  that  the  instincts 
of  any  given  species  of  animals  would  not  be  equally  strong  at 
all  times.  Observation  confirms  this  view.  Some  instincts, 
like  the  feeding  and  fear  instincts,  are  present  at  birth  and  last 
all  through  life,  though  usually  they  are  more  prominent  at  some 
times  than  at  others. 


NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS         63 

Other  instincts,  like  that  of  play,  are  not  present  at  birth,  but 
after  they  appear,  continue  to  be  manifested  all  through  life  or 
nearly  so,  though  usually  in  a  diminishing  degree.  The  in- 
stinct of  chickens  to  follow  is  a  transient  one,  entirely  disappear- 
ing in  a  short  time  if  not  developed  by  experience. 

Other  instincts  appear  at  regular  intervals,  as  at  the  migrating 
season  or  when  caring  for  young,  and  are  therefore  in  a  certain 
degree  rhythmic  or  periodic. 

The  chief  problem  which  child  study  has  to  solve  is  to  determine 
the  time  at  which  each  instinct  of  man  is  naturally  most  prom- 
inent. This  being  done,  the  problem  of  the  educator  is  to  apply 
the  right  stimuli  at  the  right  time,  so  as  to  produce  the  most 
perfect  and  rapid  development  along  desirable  lines. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  DETERMINING  THE   ORDER   OF 
DEVELOPMENT  OF   INSTINCTS 

In  the  plant  world  the  order  of  development  —  leaves,  stalk, 
blossom,  fruit  —  is  very  definite  and  fixed.  In  the  animal 
world  the  growth  of  parts  of  the  body  and  the  appearance  of 
hair,  horns,  etc.,  are  fixed  and  nearly  as  unvarying.  Since 
structure  and  instinct  are  closely  related,  we  should  expect  to 
find  a  definite  order  in  which  the  instincts  of  each  species  of 
animal  tend  to  develop.  Observation  confirms  this  view  in  a 
general  way,  as  young  animals  do  not  show  the  mating,  migrat- 
ing, nest-constructing,  and  care-taking  instincts  of  adult  animals, 
nor  adult  animals  the  same  degree  of  playfulness  as  the  yoimger 
ones.  When,  however,  we  attempt  to  determine  exactly  the  order 
in  which  instincts  develop,  many  difficulties  arise. 

The  most  common  theoretical  statement  of  the  order  in  which 
instincts  develop  is  that  they  appear  in  the  order  in  which  they 
have  been  acquired  in  the  history  of  the  race,  from  the  lowest 
forms  up.  This  view  is  supported  by  the  general  biological  law 
discovered  in  the  study  of  embryology,  that  in  the  embryonic 


64  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

state  each  animal  goes  through  stages  of  development  in  which 
it  is  successively  similar  in  form  or  proportion  of  parts  to  a  higher 
and  still  higher  animal,  till  it  attains  the  form  of  its  species. 
There  are  also  numerous  parallelisms  that  can  be  pointed  out 
in  the  development  of  a  child  after  birth  to  that  of  the  human 
race  since  it  has  become  human.  This  law  of  race  and  indi- 
vidual development  is  supposed  to  apply  not  so  much  to  the 
first  appearance  of  the  various  instincts  as  to  the  time  of 
their  greatest  prominence.  It  is  now  given  less  weight  than 
formerly. 

There  are  two  other  theoretical  considerations,  however,  that 
should  receive  attention.  In  the  first  place,  those  instincts 
which  have  been  most  universally  useful  to  all  species  of  animals 
in  all  ages,  rather  than  the  oldest,  should  be  the  strongest.  For 
example,  the  swimming  instinct  is  probably  one  of  the  oldest 
instincts,  but  it  has  been  of  little  use  among  many  species  of  ani- 
mals, hence  it  is  not  strong  in  all  young  animals.  The  instinct 
to  withdraw  from  an  unfavorable  stimulus  has,  however,  been 
useful  to  all  animals  in  all  stages  of  development ;  hence,  it  is 
universally  present  and  prominent  in  young  animals. 

Again,  we  have  noted  the  truth  that  different  instincts  are 
needed  at  different  stages  of  development.  If  instincts  developed 
in  the  same  order  in  the  individual  as  in  the  race,  in  any  species 
of  animals,  that  species  probably  would  not  long  survive,  since 
the  reproductive  and  care-taking  instincts  are  useful  to  the  species 
only  when  they  appear  in  mature  animals.  Hence,  though  the 
parental  instinct  is  one  of  the  oldest  instincts,  it  is  yet  one  of 
the  latest  to  become  prominent  in  individual  development. 

The  idea  that  instincts  need  to  vary  with  age  is  probably  the 
most  important  general  principle  in  giving  an  understanding 
of  the  order  in  which  the  various  instincts  develop. 


NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS         65 
CAUSES  OF  DIFFERENCES  IN  INDIVIDUALS  OF   THE   SAME   SPECIES 

Since  the  appearance  of  instincts  depends  upon  structure  and 
physiological  conditions,  especially  nutritive,  an  animal  must 
be  in  good  normal  condition  to  show  forth  at  the  proper  time 
feeding,  playing,  fighting,  and  sexual  instincts.  Any  variation 
in  the  health  conditions  of  an  individual  will  therefore  greatly 
modify  his  instinctive  development. 

Since  instincts  depend  also  upon  outer  stimuli,  the  appropriate 
stimulus  must  be  presented  at  the  time  when,  because  of  the 
internal  bodily  conditions,  the  instinct  is  ripe,  or  the  instinctive 
reaction  may  never  appear.  For  example,  the  swimming  in- 
stinct does  not  appear  in  ducks  except  in  the  presence  of  water, 
and  perhaps  not  without  actual  contact  of  the  whole  body  with 
it.  For  this  reason  environment  may  favor  the  development 
of  some  instincts  at  certain  times  much  more  than  at  others.  If 
the  proper  stimulus  is  never  given,  or  if  the  instinctive  tendency 
is  transient,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  instinct  may  never 
appear.  For  example,  the  instinct  of  burying  bones  shown  by 
most  dogs  either  does  not  appear,  or  appears  only  a  few  times  if, 
while  young,  they  are  kept  constantly  on  boards.  It  is  doubtful 
if  chickens  would  scratch  if  kept  all  the  time  on  a  smooth 
floor  with  no  unevenness  as  stimulus  to  their  feet.  Neither 
are  they  likely  to  follow  unless  the  instinct  to  do  so  has  exercise 
during  the  first  few  weeks. 

Although  most  instincts  are  stronger  at  certain  ages  or  at 
certain  times  of  the  year  than  at  others,  yet  most  of  them  con- 
tinue to  exist  in  some  degree  during  the  whole  life  of  the  animal, 
both  before  their  evident  appearance,  and  after  the  instinctive 
tendency  ceases  to  play  a  prominent  part  in  the  actions  of  the 
animal.  Some  instincts  vary  but  little  in  strength  all  through 
life ;  yet  even  these  may  develop  in  quite  different  ways  in  dif- 
ferent animals  of  the  same  species  because  of  early  experience. 


66  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

For  example,  the  feeding  instinct  is  always  present,  but  animals 
and  persons  in  certain  localities  get  into  the  habit  of  eating  cer- 
tain things  and  no  longer  have  an  impulse  to  try  any  other  kind 
of  food  when  it  is  presented,  though  when  young  they  would 
have  taken  it  as  readily  as  what  they  now  feed  upon  exclusively. 
The  feeding  instinct  is  specialized,  yet,  if  hungry  and  unable 
to  get  their  habitual  food,  such  animals  and  persons  take  new 
foods  which  ordinarily  they  would  not  touch.  It  is  even 
claimed  that  ponies  in  some  localities  feed  on  fish. 

It  is  evident  that,  with  all  these  complications,  the  most  com- 
mon and  natural  order  of  development  of  instincts  in  animals 
is  very  difficult  to  determine.  The  problem  is  still  harder  in 
children,  who  have  so  many  instincts,  most  of  which  are,  during 
a  long  period,  easily  modified  by  special  conditions.  Something, 
however,  has  been  determined,  as  will  be  indicated  later. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   INSTINCTS 

In  attempting  to  classify  instincts  it  is  not  possible  to  classify 
them  according  to  the  nature  of  the  stimulus  or  the  kind  of  move- 
ments made,  or  the  bodily  or  mental  states  of  the  animals,  for 
these  are  all  so  various  that  they  cannot  be  grouped  under  a  few 
heads.  Again,  those  features  are  not  of  universal  significance, 
since  what  is  a  useful  stimulus  or  movement  to  one  animal  is 
harmful  to  another.  Since  all  instincts  owe  their  existence  to 
their  usefulness,  the  uses  subserved  by  the  various  instincts 
should  be  the  basis  of  classification.  To  a  considerable  extent 
all  animals  have  the  same  general  needs ;  hence,  a  classification 
based  on  the  ends  gained  by  instinctive  acts  will  apply  to  all  forms 
of  animal  life,  including  man. 

(i)  All  tendencies  to  action  which  have  for  their  primary  end 
the  good  of  the  individual  may  be  called  individualistic  or  self- 
preservative  instincts.  The  most  fundamental  and  universal 
form  of  this  instinct  is  shown  in  the  tendency  to  contract  the  body 


NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS         67 

and  withdraw  from  unfavorable  stimuli,  and  expand  or  approach 
toward  favorable  ones. 

In  its  most  primitive  form  the  tendency  to  approach  favorable 
and  recede  from  unfavorable  stimuli  is  found  only  in  the  tendency 
to  move  so  as  to  increase  favorable  or  decrease  unfavorable  stimuli 
already  being  received.  For  example,  all  animals,  and  even  plants 
to  some  extent,  move  toward  or  away  from  light,  heat,  chemical 
and  mechanical  stimuli,  so  as  to  get  more  or  less  of  them  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  their  organism.  This  is  known  as  trophism. 
Besides  this  tendency,  which  is  universal  in  all  animals,  from 
the  highest  to  the  lowest,  most  animals  have  a  disposition  to 
move  about  and  to  react  in  appropriate  ways  in  response  to 
certain  stimuli,  before  there  is  any  chance  to  experience  their 
favorable  or  unfavorable  character  in  even  a  slight  degree. 

The  chief  ends  subserved  by  the  individualistic  instincts  are 
the  securing  of  food,  and  the  avoidance  or  defeat  of  enemies. 
The  chief  forms  of  this  instinct  may  be  designated  as  the  feeding, 
fearing,  and  fighting  instincts. 

(2)  If  animals  (except  the  lowest,  which  are  without  sex  and 
multiply  by  division)  had  no  instincts  except  those  connected 
with  self-preservation,  there  would  be  only  one  generation  of 
each  kind.  To  live  as  a  species,  animals  must  have  instincts  im- 
pelling them  to  produce  and  care  for  young,  as  weU  as  those 
impelling  them  to  preserve  their  own  lives.  Not  only  must  they 
have  these  instincts,  but  in  most  animals  at  certain  times  the 
racial  instinct  must  be  stronger  than  the  individualistic  instinct, 
so  that  animals  with  young  will  deny  themselves  food  and  risk 
their  lives  to  feed  and  defend  their  offspring  from  danger,  other- 
wise the  species  would  not  continue  to  exist. 

All  actions,  therefore,  which  have  for  their  primary  end  the 
producing  of  young,  and  preparing  for  and  taking  care  of  them, 
are  classed  under  racial  instincts.  Hence,  under  this  head  we 
may  include,  with  the  more  obvious  actions,  those  less  directly 


6S  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

related  to  the  perpetuation  of  the  species,  such  as  singing,  self- 
exhibition,  fighting  for  mates,  and  nest  building. 

(3)  Many  lower  animals,  such  as  bees  and  ants,  always  live 
in  colonies,  and  have  instincts  which  impel  them  to  act  primarily 
for  the  good  of  the  group  to  which  they  belong,  and  only  indirectly 
for  the  good  of  themselves  or  their  species.  In  many  instances 
there  are  in  each  group  several  different  types  of  individuals  with 
corresponding  differences  in  instincts.  In  the  case  of  bees  and 
ants  there  are  nearly  always  three  or  more  types  in  each  commu- 
nity. Some  of  the  higher  animals,  such  as  wolves  and  cattle,  go 
in  groups  a  part  or  all  of  the  time,  and  cooperate  in  securing  food 
and  escaping  danger.  In  so  doing  they  act  not  merely  for  their 
own  good  and  for  the  good  of  their  species  as  represented  in  their 
young,  but  for  the  good  of  the  group  to  which  they  belong.  All 
kinds  of  actions  in  response  to  the  stimulus  of  one's  own  kind 
may  be  regarded  as  social. 

The  predominance  of  man  over  other  animals  is  due  in  no 
small  part  to  the  greater  tendency  of  men  to  arrange  themselves 
in  groups,  and  cooperate  for  the  common  good  in  attack  and 
defense. 

(4)  Since  all  the  higher  animals  come  into  the  world  in  an  un- 
finished state,  they  need  to  be  and  are  very  plastic  to  surrounding 
forces  which  develop  and  mould  them  so  that  they  become 
capable  of  surviving  and  making  their  own  living  in  the  environ- 
ment into  which  they  are  born.  Mere  clay-like  plasticity  to 
outside  impressions,  however,  is  not  sufficient.  During  infancy, 
when  the  young  creature  is  protected,  he  is  active  in  ways  that 
prepare  him  for  the  serious  situations  that  he  must  meet  when 
no  longer  protected  by  parents.  The  young  animal  not  only 
adapts  himself  to  his  environment  by  responding  to  the  stimuli 
he  receives,  in  ways  most  favorable  to  himself,  but  he  actively 
seeks  stimuli  and  repeats  actions  when  their  former  stimuli  are 
not  affecting  him.     This  inner  tendency  to  actively  increase  the 


NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS         69 

number  of  stimuli  and  reactions  is  the  basis  of  the  adaptive  in- 
stincts, the  chief  forms  of  which  are  imitation,  play,  and  curiosity. 

Imitation  may  be  defined  in  a  general  way  as  the  tendency  to 
repeat  what  has  been  perceived,  especially  the  sounds  and  move- 
ments made  by  others  of  the  same  species.  In  imitation  there 
is  an  outer  stimulus  that  calls  forth  a  movement  producing  to 
some  extent  the  same  stimulus.  It  is  evident  that  this  tendency 
is  often  of  direct  use  to  an  animal  in  adapting  itself  to  its  surround- 
ings ;  for  the  young  animal  that  imitates  his  elders  (which  are 
already  adapted  to  their  environment) ,  in  seeking  shelter,  select- 
ing food,  and  avoiding  enemies,  is  much  more  likely  to  survive 
than  the  one  who  must  learn  what  is  good  for  him  from  his  own 
chance  experiences,  any  one  of  which  may  result  fatally.  The 
advantages  to  the  child  who  has  so  much  to  learn  are  still  greater ; 
hence,  he  is  the  most  imitative  of  all  young  animals. 

Play,  or  the  tendency  to  perform  acts  for  their  own  sake  rather 
than  for  the  ends  to  be  gained  by  them,  is  of  direct  use  to  all 
immature  animals  because  it  gives  practice  in  performing  acts 
before  there  is  any  serious  need  for  their  performance,  or  any 
dangerous  results  from  imperfect  performance.  It  is  evident 
that  animals  which  play  at  chasing  and  fighting  when  young 
will  have  a  great  advantage  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  when 
they  have  to  make  their  own  way  in  life,  over  those  that  have 
not  played  in  youth.  Surplus  energy  tends  to  flow  out  along 
old  racial  channels  as  fast  as  their  beginnings  are  developed  in 
the  young  animal.  Every  instinctive  tendency  is  therefore  mani- 
fested in  play,  and  is  thus  perfected  for  future  use.  Surplus 
energy  is  a  favorable  condition  for  play,  but  what  is  played  at 
any  time  is  determined  largely  by  the  degree  of  development 
and  the  relative  prominence  of  the  instincts  which  are  not  needed 
for  serious  purposes. 

Curiosity,  unlike  imitation  and  play,  is  concerned  more  with 
the  securing  of  sensations  than  with  modes  of  action.     It  is  an 


70  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

intellectual  hunger,  an  impulse  to  secure  and  test  new  sensations. 
An  animal  that  possesses  it  soon  comes  in  contact  with  all  phases 
of  his  environment,  and  examines  every  new  thing  as  it  appears, 
before  attempting  to  eat,  attack,  or  run  away  from  it.  It  is 
quite  evident  that  under  natural  conditions  a  young  animal 
with  curiosity  will  become  adapted  to  its  environment  much 
sooner  than  one  without  such  an  instinct. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  curiosity  is  the  basis  of  a  large 
share  of  the  intellectual  development  in  animals  and  in  man. 
Every  new  thing  introduced  into  a  familiar  environment  is  a 
stimulus  to  curiosity,  and  every  new  relation  of  object  or  idea 
to  other  familiar  ones  is  equally  effective  in  man ;  hence  curiosity 
is  to  the  intellect  what  appetite  is  to  the  body  —  a  cause  of 
growth  and  development. 

(5)  It  is  not  easy  to  demonstrate  clearly  the  existence  of 
regulative  instincts,  though  good  general  grounds  for  affirming 
their  usefulness  and  their  existence  in  man  are  easily  found. 
Evidently,  every  species  of  animal  that  is  to  survive  must  conform 
to  the  laws  of  nature  and  the  environment  in  which  it  lives. 
Every  organism  must  conform  to  the  laws  of  rhythmic,  seasonal 
changes  imposed  by  the  sun;  hence  a  tendency  to  conform  to 
constant  environing  conditions,  or,  in  other  words,  to  act  ac- 
cording to  law,  has  naturally  developed.  Again,  the  several 
varieties  of  instincts  often  impel  to  opposing  actions,  and  the 
tendency  is  for  the  strongest  and  most  quickly  acting  instinct 
to  determine  action,  although  safety  for  the  individual  and  species 
may  lie  in  the  direction  of  the  action  suggested  by  a  more  slowly 
acting  instinct.  In  such  cases  a  tendency  to  pause  before  acting 
and  give  slower  instincts  time  to  awaken  and  exercise  their 
rightful  influence  would  be  of  advantage.  Something  to  make 
the  instincts  work  together  for  the  good  of  the  animal  and  its 
species  would  evidently  be  useful. 

Such  an  instinct  probably  exists,  in  man  at  least,  in  the  moral 


NATIVE  ENDOWMENT  OF  SPECIAL  INSTINCTS         71 

tendency  to  conform  to  law  and  to  act  for  the  good  of  others 
as  well  as  self,  and  in  the  religious  tendency  to  regard  a  Higher 
Power.  This  instinct  gives  rise  to  a  feeling  that  one  ought  to 
act  in  conformity  with  certain  laws  fixed  by  the  experience  of 
the  race,  or  by  customs  and  habits  of  groups  of  individuals, 
and  to  a  feeling  of  reverence  and  awe  in  the  presence  of  the 
Power  back  of  these  laws. 

(6)  Actions  for  the  attainment  of  the  various  ends  already 
enumerated,  and  numerous  combinations  and  oppositions  of 
ends  and  means  of  attainment,  give  rise  to  many  tendencies  to 
action  and  feeling  that  are  not  easily  classified  under  any  of  the 
previously  named  heads.  Among  the  most  prominent  of  these 
impulses  and  associated  feelings  are :  (i)  the  tendency  to  collect 
objects  of  various  kinds  and  to  enjoy  their  ownership ;  (2)  the 
tendency  to  construct  or  destroy  and  the  pleasure  of  being  a 
power  or  a  cause ;  (3)  the  tendency  to  express  mental  states  to 
others  of  the  species  and  to  take  pleasure  in  such  expression; 
(4)  the  tendency  to  adornment  and  to  the  making  of  beautiful 
things  and  the  aesthetic  pleasure  of  contemplating  such  objects. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  As  a  machine,  how  does  an  animal  differ  from  other  machines? 

2.  Do  acquired  movements  ever  become  nearly  as  automatic  as  breath- 
ing?   Illustrate. 

3.  Give  examples  of  instinctive  and  of  reflex  movements. 

4.  Illustrate  the  fact  that  structure  and  instinct  correspond  not  only  in 
different  animals,  but  also  in  the  same  animals  at  different  times.  How  can 
naturalists  infer  the  instincts  of  extinct  animals  by  examining  their  bones? 

5.  Are  there  any  acts  that  you  can  perform  better  when  not  thinking 
of  them?    What  kind  of  acts  are  they? 

6.  Why  does  an  architect  need  to  be  more  intelligent  than  a  mason,  or  a 
squirrel  more  intelligent  than  a  fish  ? 

7.  When  is  a  deer  probably  most  conscious  and  fearful,  when  fleeing 
from  danger  or  when  cornered? 

8.  Give  several  illustrations  of  learning  from  few  experiences  by  animals 
or  children  as  evidence  of  intelligence. 


72 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 


9.   Give  illustrations  of  the  various  conditions  affecting  the  usefulness  of 
instincts. 

10.  Give  examples  of  fixed  and  of  indefinite  instincts. 

11.  Give  illustrations  of  transient  or  periodic  instincts. 

12.  Give  some  parallels  between  the  development  of  the  child  and  the  race. 

13.  Illustrate  how  the  instincts  of  individuals  may  be  modified  by  acci- 
dental causes. 

14.  Give  illustrations  of  each  class  of  instinct. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

The  best  chapter  on  instinct  is  in  James's  Psychology,  and  one  of  the  best 

popular  books  on  the  subject  is  Chadbourne's  Instinct.    AU  books  on 

animals  treat  of  the  subject. 
The  following  chapters  bear  on  the  nature  and  use  of  instincts :   Alorgan, 

Animal  Life  and  Intelligence,  chap,  xi;  Romanes,  Mental  Evolution  in 

Animals,  chap,  xi;    Wundt,  Human  and  Animal  Psychology,  chaps. 

xxvi  and  xxvii ;  Marshall,  Instinct  and  Reason,  chap,  iii ;  Baldwin,  Vol. 

I,  chap,  viii ;  Jordan  and  Kellogg,  Animal  Life,  chaps,  xiv  and  xv. 
The  relation  of  instinct  to  consciousness  and  intelligence  is  discussed  ably 

in  Morgan,  Animal  Life  and  Intelligence,  chap,  xii,  and  Cotnparative 

Psychology,  chap,  xii ;  Minot,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LXI,  pp.  289-303 ; 

Baldwin,  Vol.  I,  pp.  208-214;  Watkins,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XI,  pp. 

166-180. 
The  mechanism  of  reflex  and  instinctive  movements  is  discussed  by  Jennings, 

Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  503-515,  and  in  Loeb's  Physiology  of  the 

Brain. 
On  the  general  order  of   development   read   Vincent,    The   Social  Mind 

and  Education,  pp.  66-90;  Swift,  Jr.  Ped.,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  295-303; 

Guillet,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  397-445. 

Later  References 
Books 
Mc  Indoo 
Mills 
Mitchell 
Parmlee 

Partridge  (i  &  2) 
Pyle 


Bolton 

Chamberlain  (i) 

Drmnmond 

Forbush 

Gesell 

Hall,  G.  S.  (i) 

Kirkpatrick  (i  &  2) 


Sandiford 

Shepherd 

Swift  (i  &  2) 

Tanner 

Thomdike  (i,  3  &  8) 

Watson 


CHAPTER  V 

MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS 

NURTURE    AND   DEVELOPMENT 

The  native  endowments  of  the  individual  at  birth  are  only 
possibilities  and  these  become  realities  in  greater  or  less  degree 
according  as  the  environment  furnishes  conditions  and  stimuli 
for  their  development.  This  environment  must  supply  at  least 
the  essentials  for  maintaining  life.  In  addition  to  this,  human 
beings  especially  are  provided  with  numerous  mental  stimuli. 
These  come  primarily  through  the  senses.  These  stimuli  are 
provided  by  the  material  objects  of  nature  and  art  and  by  living 
creatures,  especially  those  of  one's  own  species. 

These  stimuli  are  effective  in  calling  forth  activity  and  in 
producing  development  not  merely  in  proportion  to  the  objective 
strength  of  the  stimuli,  but  in  accordance  with  the  special  sensi- 
tiveness produced  by  the  internal  conditions  of  body  and  mind 
at  the  time.  When  one  has  eaten  to  repletion,  the  strongest  food 
stimuli  become  weak ;  and  when  one  knows  nothing  of  plants,  a 
lecture  regarding  them  may  be  a  bore. 

Persons  in  the  same  surroundings  are  not  receiving  the  same 
nurture,  for  as  their  natures  differ  so  does  their  influential  environ- 
ment. Just  as  potatoes  and  pumpkins  may  be  produced  in  the 
same  soil,  so  persons  differing  greatly  in  character  may  develop 
in  the  same  community  and  even  in  the  same  home. 

Circumstances  of  a  more  or  less  chance  character  also  play  a 
considerable  part.  Except  in  the  case  of  twins  the  effect  of  a 
given  stimulus  is  likely  to  be  different  because  the  ages  differ, 

73 


74  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

and  with  age,  instincts  and  experiences.  One  child  may  be 
dehghted  and  the  other  terrified  by  the  sudden  appearance  of  a 
big  black  dog.  Even  in  the  case  of  twins  if  one  first  sees  the 
dog  when  it  is  quiet  and  he  is  in  the  presence  of  others,  while  to 
the  other  it  suddenly  appears  when  he  is  alone,  the  effects  will 
be  different,  not  only  at  the  time  but  in  the  future  when  similar 
stimuli  are  received. 

Environment  begins  to  act  as  soon  as  one  is  bom  and  con- 
tinues its  influence  all  through  hfe.  The  development  of  an 
individual  may  be  modified  by  changing  his  surroundings. 
These  changes  will  be  effective  in  proportion  as  the  individual 
is  or  is  not  sensitive,  because  of  ripening  instincts  or  previous 
experience,  to  the  particular  portion  of  the  environment  changed. 
Means  may  also  be  taken  to  call  attention  to  special  features  of 
the  environment  and  thus  make  them  effective  influences. 

Young  animals  and  children  are  always  protected  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  from  many  phases  of  the  life  about  them.  To 
children,  parents  and  schools  are  a  more  or  less  artificial  environ- 
ment, while  to  both  young  and  old,  social  customs,  especially 
in  the  group  to  which  one  belongs,  call  attention  to  certain  kinds 
of  stimuli  and  encourage  certain  kinds  of  responses  to  each  type 
of  experience. 

INSTINCTS   AND   LEARNING 

In  all  living  things  growth  is  from  what  already  exists.  In  the 
plant  the  roots  and  stalk  come  from  the  seed,  the  branches  from 
the  stalk,  the  leaves  from  the  buds;  and  each  new  phase  of 
development  in  the  plant  depends  upon  and  is  the  outcome  of  the 
preceding  stages.  In  a  similar  way  does  all  learning  take  place. 
It  begins  in  the  modification  of  instinctive  acts  and  each  new  stage 
of  learning  is  the  outgrowth  of  previous  acquirement.  Learning 
is  a  process  of  modifying  the  instinctive  actions  in  becoming 
adapted  to  the  special  environment  affecting  the  organism. 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  75 

A  chicken  and  a  baby  have  the  feeding  instinct  not  only  in 
the  form  of  sensations  of  hunger  and  of  a  tendency  to  motion  of 
some  kind  but  it  is  manifested  in  the  movement  of  certain  parts 
of  the  body  in  specific  ways  in  response  to  food  and  other 
stimuli  connected  with  feeding. 

The  chicken,  when  hungry,  pecks  at  any  small  object  that  is 
clearly  differentiated  from  its  surroundings,  whether  it  be  a 
particle  of  meal,  the  eye  of  its  mate,  or  its  own  toe.  With  practice 
the  movement  becomes  more  accurate  and  is  associated  with 
movements  of  the  legs  in  approaching  objects  and  in  poising 
the  body  for  pecking.  The  grasping  with  the  bill  and  swallow- 
ing of  loose  particles  is  also  instinctive  and  only  slightly  improved 
with  practice.  The  next  step  in  learning  is  to  cease  from  pecking 
at  objects  that  cannot  be  clasped  by  the  beak  and  to  limit  the 
pecking  more  and  more  to  those  kinds  of  objects  which  give 
satisfaction  when  taken  into  the  mouth.  Another  step  in  learn- 
ing to  eat  is  taken  when  the  young  chicken  runs  to  the  mother  in 
response  to  her  food  call ;  whether  the  response  to  this  call  is 
instinctive  or  whether  the  sound  merely  draws  attention  to  the 
food  particles  that  the  chicken  has  already  learned  to  observe, 
approach,  and  peck,  is  doubtful. 

The  next  step  in  learning  is  based  on  the  instinctive  tendency 
to  move  the  feet  in  a  certain  way  when  they  are  stimulated  by  an 
uneven  surface.  This  occurs  in  association  with  the  picking 
of  food  particles  and  results  in  the  chicken's  learning  to  scratch  for 
food.  Having  progressed  thus  far,  whenever  he  is  stimulated  by 
hunger  he  moves  about ;  and  if  he  sees  anything  resembling  a  bit 
of  food,  he  pecks  it,  or  if  he  is  on  an  uneven  or  soft  surface  where 
food  is  concealed,  he  scratches  and  pecks  alternately.  If  a 
chicken  is  with  a  hen,  he  learns  to  follow  her,  partly  perhaps  be- 
cause of  an  instinctive  tendency  to  follow  moving  objects,  and 
partly  because  the  satisfaction  of  getting  food  is  more  frequently 
experienced  near  the  mother  hen.    When,  however,  he  grows 


76  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

more  skillful  in  getting  food  for  himself,  he  finds  less  competition 
at  a  distance  from  the  mother,  where  there  are  not  several  other 
chickens  ready  to  seize  upon  each  morsel. 

If  food  is  more  frequently  found  at  certain  places  than  at  others, 
he  learns  to  go  to  those  places  for  it.  If  he  sees  some  one  bringing 
the  food  or  hears  a  call  as  it  is  brought,  he  soon  learns  to  come  for 
food  when  the  same  stimuli  are  seen  or  heard.  This  learning 
may  be  further  specialized  into  a  response  to  a  specific  call  or 
the  sight  of  certain  movements. 

Again,  a  chicken  may  be  put  in  a  maze  and  fed  when  he  gets 
out  and  may  thus  learn  to  pass  accurately  through  a  rather 
complicated  network  of  paths  in  order  to  get  food.  Various 
other  tricks  may  be  taught  him,  providing  in  each  case  the  new 
movements  are  associated  with  the  sensations  of  hunger,  the 
instinctive  and  acquired  movements  already  known,  and  the 
getting  of  food.  Looked  at  in  a  broad  way  we  see  that  the  general 
condition  of  hunger  calls  forth  varied  movements,  external  stimuli 
produce  special  reactions,  and  any  movement  that  brings  satis- 
faction is  selected  for  survival.  Such  movements,  as  they  are 
repeated,  become  more  restricted  as  to  the  exact  nature  of  the 
stimulus  calling  them  forth  and  as  to  their  number  and  accuracy. 
When  the  response  to  a  specific  stimulus  has  been  repeated  until 
it  is  made  in  the  same  way  every  time,  a  habit  has  been  formed. 

The  progress  of  a  child  in  learning  to  eat  may  be  traced  in  a 
similar  way,  but  it  is  more  complex  and  the  things  learned  may  be 
much  more  remotely  associated  with  the  feeding  instinct.  It 
extends  not  only  to  the  child's  own  bodily  movements,  but  also 
to  his  manipulation  of  implements  such  as  spoon,  knife,  and  fork, 
and,  later,  to  the  learning  of  an  occupation,  partly  in  response 
to  the  feeding  instinct.  It  leads  not  only  to  the  learning  of 
movements,  but  to  the  formation  of  images  concerned  with  food. 
A  hungry  person  can  scarcely  avoid  such  images  either  when 
awake  or  at  night  in  his  dreams. 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  77 

The  learning  involved  in  modifying,  perfecting,  and  extending 
native  reactions  and  the  association  of  external  movements  and 
of  mental  states  with  the  inner  impulse  to  secure  some  instinctive 
end,  is  in  all  cases  of  a  character  similar  to  that  described  in 
detail  for  the  feeding  instinct. 

There  are  only  partial  exceptions  to  this  general  principle  of 
learning.  Many  anim.als,  and  especially  young  children,  make  a 
great  many  impulsive  movements  which  seem  to  be  of  a  chance 
character.  Often  they  are  instinctive  movements  only  slightly 
specialized  to  meet  the  situation.  These  combine  with  and 
modify  the  more  definite  instinctive  movements,  and  in  a  more 
or  less  chance  way  one  of  them  brings  favorable  results  and  is 
then  selected  for  repetition  and  specialization. 

Training  and  teaching  must  always  start  with  instinctive  re- 
actions as  modified  and  extended  by  previous  experience.  A 
person  who  wishes  to  train  a  horse  to  answer  questions,  for 
example,  may  begin  with  the  tendency  to  respond  by  lifting  the 
foot  and  putting  it  down  again  when  the  shin  is  struck.  This 
tendency  may  be  developed  into  a  response  when  a  stick  is 
seen  to  move  toward  the  shin,  then  to  the  stimulus  of  a  glance 
and  word  from  the  trainer.  A  horse  may  then  be  induced  to 
begin  pawing  and  to  continue  until  another  gesture  is  the  signal 
for  stopping.  Such  a  horse  may  then  be  made  to  appear  to 
count  and  solve  arithmetical  problems  by  pawing  the  required 
number  of  times.  In  a  similar  way  the  training  and  teaching 
of  a  child  is  a  process  of  modifying  instinctive  and  habitual 
reactions  and  developing  new  ones  in  association  with  them  in 
such  a  way  as  to  produce  coordinated  movement  and  thinking. 

MODES   OF   LEARNING 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  chicken  starting  with  instinctive  re- 
actions learns  by  his  own  movements,  and  not  directly  by  what 
others  do.     Many  movements  are  of  a  more  or  less  chance  or 


78  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

trial  character  when  the  situation  is  unusual  and  the  particular 
movements  to  be  learned  are  largely  new,  as  when  an  animal  is 
trying  to  get  out  of  a  cage.  A  chicken,  a  dog,  or  a  cat,  if  placed 
in  a  cage,  learns  to  get  out  by  this  method  of  trial  and  success. 
He  goes  to  all  parts  of  the  inclosure  and  does  various  things 
until  he  happens  to  make  the  movement  which  opens  the  door. 
Such  an  animal  may  see  his  mate  who  has  learned  how  to  escape 
from  the  cage  perform  the  act  again  and  again,  but  when  placed 
therein  may  himself  make  just  as  many  trial  movements  before 
getting  out  as  did  another  animal  who  had  not  seen  others  escape. 

In  the  case  of  monkeys  and  some  other  mammals,  an  animal 
who  has  seen  another  get  out  of  a  cage  will  profit  to  a  slight 
degree,  in  that  he  frequently  confines  his  operations  chiefly  to  the 
part  of  the  cage  where  the  successful  movement  of  turning  a 
button  or  pulling  a  string  was  made  by  the  trained  mate,  instead 
of  scratching  and  biting  at  various  places.  Very  rarely  do 
animals,  even  monkeys,  make  the  specific  movement  which  they 
have  seen  bring  success  to  another. 

In  contrast  with  this  a  child  will  notice  the  specific  character 
of  movements  made  by  others  and  then  reproduce  those  move- 
ments with  approximate  correctness,  increasing  his  accuracy 
with  practice.  In  other  words  children  imitate  to  a  great  extent 
in  learning  to  do  new  things,  whereas  animals  make  very  little 
use  of  this  method  of  learning.  This  is  one  reason  why  children 
can  learn  so  many  more  new  things,  much  more  complex  ones, 
and  so  much  more  quickly.  Children  usually  attain  their  first 
approximate  success  through  imitation,  while  the  animal  can 
only  succeed  through  repeated,  unguided  trials.  The  most 
marked  exception  to  this  general  rule  is  found  in  the  imitation  of 
sounds  by  parrots  and  some  other  birds.  Trainers  of  animals 
make  very  little  use  of  imitation,  while  trainers  of  children  con- 
stantly use  it. 

Animals  perfect  and  modify  instinctive  reactions  through  a 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  79 

primitive  form  of  imitation,  as  when  they  go  with  companions  in 
search  of  food  and  join  them  in  fleeing  from  danger ;  but  in  learn- 
ing newer  and  more  complex  movements  imitation  plays  little  part. 
A  chicken,  a  cat,  or  a  dog  will  develop  the  usual  movements  and 
cries  of  his  species  when  he  grows  up  alone,  as  accurately  as 
when  he  has  companions,  but  the  process  may  be  slower.  A 
child,  on  the  other  hand,  without  persons  to  imitate,  will  scarcely 
be  human  in  his  actions. 

There  is  another  method  of  learning  open  to  man  that  is  utterly 
closed  to  animals,  that  of  learning  through  the  symbol  and  thought 
method,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the ' '  method  of  understanding. ' ' 
It  is  true  that  animals  may  be  taught  to  understand  language  in 
the  sense  that  when  certain  words  are  uttered  they  will  perform  a 
certain  act ;  e.g.,  "Rover,  go  get  the  cows"  may  send  the  trained 
shepherd  dog  flying  to  the  pasture.  In  no  case,  however,  is  it  pos- 
sible for  an  animal  to  learn  to  do  new  things  through  the  medium 
of  words  only,  as  can  a  child.  You  may  give  a  command  to  an 
animal  and,  as  he  makes  various  trial  movements,  direct  him  by 
gestures  and  by  warning  or  encouraging  cries,  according  as  his 
movements  are  in  the  direction  of  failure  or  success.  If  he  finally 
does  the  right  thing,  a  reward  and  further  practice  will  soon  result 
in  his  learning  what  to  do  when  that  command  is  given.  The 
dog  has  learned  to  respond  correctly  to  your  words,  but  he  has  not 
learned  by  means  of  your  words,  and  no  animal  can  be  taught 
in  that  way. 

A  child  learns  the  meaning  of  words  as  does  the  dog,  but 
ultimately  he  gains  such  a  power  of  separating  and  combining 
the  ideas  corresponding  to  word  symbols  that  he  can  learn  of 
objects  and  events  that  he  has  never  witnessed,  and  he  can  learn 
to  perform  complex  movements  from  description  and  practice 
only.  With  this  method  of  learning  open  to  him,  a  child  may 
profit  by  all  the  transmitted  experience  of  companions  and  of  the 
race;  while  animals  gain  nothing  except  from  their  immediate 


8o  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

companions,  and  that  learning  is  limited  in  amount  because  specific 
new  movements  are  imitated  rarely  or  not  at  all. 

It  is  evident  that  the  child  has  a  great  advantage  over  animals 
in  his  free  use  of  two  methods  of  learning  which  are  not  open  in 
any  considerable  degree  to  them,  each  permitting  him  to  learn 
by  the  experience  of  others.  For  both  children  and  animals, 
however,  personal  experience  is  the  fundamental  form  of  learn- 
ing. In  such  learning,  direction  of  movements  by  the  teacher  is 
not  sufficient.  There  must  be  some  sort  of  stimulus  and  some 
sort  of  end  to  be  gained  associated  with  the  movements.  If 
an  animal  is  held  while  in  a  cage  and  his  foot  made  to  turn  a 
button,  then  is  taken  out  of  the  cage  and  given  food,  he  makes 
very  little  progress  in  learning  to  get  out  and  get  food ;  but  if  when 
he  is  trying  to  get  out  he  is  assisted  in  finding  and  turning  the 
button  and  then  allowed  to  go  out  and  get  food,  he  learns  very 
quickly.  In  a  similar  way  a  child  may  be  aided  in  learning  to  do 
what  he  is  attempting,  but  unless  he  is  active  in  responding  to  a 
certain  stimulus  or  situation  for  the  purpose  of  securing  some 
desirable  result,  putting  him  through  the  motions  has  little 
effect.  On  the  other  hand,  he  has  such  power  of  representing 
movements  that  if  he  desires  to  learn  how  to  respond  to  a  certain 
situation,  he  can  often  do  so  with  little  practice  if  he  sees  the  act 
performed  by  some  one  else  or  if  he  hears  or  reads  a  description 
of  how  it  should  be  done.  It  is  because  of  this  power  of  mentally 
representing  or  performing  the  movements  appropriate  to  certain 
situations  that  the  child  can  learn  so  much  more  rapidly  than 
can  any  animal. 

Teachers,  however,  presume  too  much  regarding  this  mode  of 
learning  by  children.  Such  power  is  not  possessed  until  they 
have  learned  a  great  deal  through  their  own  actual  experiences 
and  it  cannot  be  effectively  utilized  if  the  child  is  led  to  represent 
the  process  only  without  a  clear  representation  of  the  situation 
to  be  met  and  the  end  to  be  gained.    Much  of  the  arithmetical 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  8t 

and  other  teaching  is  a  failure,  because  the  teacher  dwells  on  the 
process  to  be  used  without  the  child's  appreciating  the  situation 
to  be  met  or  caring  for  the  end  to  be  gained. 

The  younger  the  child  and  the  more  unfamiliar  the  thing  being 
taught  to  him,  the  more  important  is  the  method  of  learning  by 
actual  trial  and  experience  leading  to  success.  The  method  of 
imitation  may  be  used  as  an  aid  in  directing  practice.  Later, 
words  may  be  used  in  guiding  the  attempts  at  imitation,  and 
finally  one  who  has  had  sufficient  experience  in  a  given  line  may 
be  taught  by  means  of  words  only,  but  the  learning  is  not  effective 
until  the  directions  have  been  put  into  actual  practice.  Much 
of  what  is  taught  in  school  has  little  permanent  result  because 
the  things  learned  are  not  connected  either  actually  or  in  imagina- 
tion with  the  situations  that  make  them  significant,  and  are  not 
put  in  practice  for  years  after  they  are  learned. 

THE   PHYSIOLOGY   OF   LEARNING 

Learning  is  possible  because  whenever  certain  parts  of  an 
organism  act  together  or  in  immediate  sequence  in  a  certain  way, 
with  results  that  are  not  unfavorable  to  the  organism,  changes 
more  or  less  permanent  are  produced  in  those  parts  which  make 
them  more  ready  to  act  in  the  same  way  in  response  to  a  stimulus 
or  situation  similar  to  the  one  which  previously  initiated  the 
action.  This  general  principle  holds  for  all  living  creatures  from 
the  highest  to  the  lowest,  and  for  all  sorts  of  tissues.  It  applies 
to  glands  as  well  as  to  nervous  and  muscular  tissue.  The  salivary 
glands  may  learn  to  respond  to  certain  sights  or  odors  or  even  to 
images  of  them,  just  as  the  muscles  of  the  arm  and  hand  may 
learn  to  manipulate  a  spoon  in  getting  food  into  the  mouth.  This 
characteristic  of  preserving  the  effects  of  past  activity  is  probably 
greater  in  the  nerve  cells  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  body. 
Nerve  tissue  of  a  highly  developed  character  constitutes  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  human  body  than  in  the  case  of  almost  any 


82  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

other  creature.  This  is  probably  the  reason  why  man  can  learn 
so  much  more  and  so  much  more  quickly. 

The  exact  nature  of  the  changes  produced  in  nervous  and  in 
other  tissue  by  activity  is  not  known.  It  is  probably  partly 
nutritive  in  character,  since  the  results  of  any  given  act  of  learning 
are  greater  when  the  organism  is  healthy  and  unfatigued.  The 
effects  of  practice  also  seem  to  be  greater  when  it  occurs  at  proper 
intervals.  This  probably  is  because  some  of  the  tissue  is  used 
up  by  the  activity  and  must  be  replaced  by  new  material.  This 
replacing  takes  place  best  during  periods  of  comparative  rest, 
especially  during  sleep.  Again,  the  permanency  of  the  effects  of 
activity  depends  in  part  upon  the  vigor  or  intensity  of  the  action, 
intense  activities  producing  more  permanent  effects  than  slight 
ones,  although  activities  that  are  too  intense  may  lack  in  definite- 
ness  because  of  the  spreading  of  activity  to  other  parts,  or  there 
may  be  overstrain  and  consequent  failure  of  proper  rebuilding 
processes.  Similarly,  very  brief  activity  has  less  permanent 
effects  than  more  prolonged,  providing  the  time  of  continuance 
is  not  too  great.  To  increase  muscular  and  nervous  power  and 
to  make  impressions  permanent  there  is  probably  an  intensity 
and  a  period  of  continuance  of  activity  more  favorable  than  any 
other,  though  these  differ  for  different  processes,  different  persons, 
and  varying  ages. 

One  of  the  most  important  laws  of  learning  is  that  regarding 
summation  of  the  effects  of  repetition.  Each  new  repetition  adds 
its  effects  to  those  of  preceding  ones  and  the  tendency  to  that 
type  of  activity  grows  ever  stronger.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  in- 
difference as  to  how  closely  repetitions  follow  each  other.  If 
they  follow  with  great  rapidity  for  a  considerable  time,  fatigue 
similar  to  the  overstrain  of  intense  stimulation  or  exertion  is  the 
result.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  intervals  between  repetitions 
are  very  long,  the  effects  of  the  previous  repetition  may  have 
nearly  disappeared  and  many  repetitions  may  be  made  in  a  period 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  83 

of  years  without  producing  a  very  distinct  effect  on  memory  or 
on  skill  in  doing. 

There  is  reason  for  believing  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  inter- 
vals between  repetitions  to  be  recognized  as  conducive  to  the 
most  efficient  learning,  viz.,  several  repetitions  at  short  intervals 
followed  by  another  group  of  repetitions  after  an  interval  suffi- 
ciently long  for  nutritive  changes  to  take  place.  For  example, 
one  may  practice  making  certain  letters  or  playing  a  certain 
piece  or  practicing  a  certain  stroke  in  tennis  or  golf  a  number  of 
times  one  day,  then  repeat  the  period  of  practice  the  next  day. 
What  the  most  favorable  period  of  practice  is  and  what  the  most 
favorable  interval  between  periods,  varies  with  the  nature  of 
the  activity,  the  personality,  and  the  age  of  the  individual.  In 
general,  short  periods  are  better  in  the  case  of  simple  activities, 
for  younger  persons  and  for  individuals  who  fatigue  quickly.  As 
to  intervals,  in  the  absence  of  positive  proof  it  is  probably  best  to 
give  preference  to  that  of  one  day,  corresponding  to  nature's 
rhythm,  associated  with  which  there  is  known  to  be  a  physiologi- 
cal rhythm.  This  principle,  however,  should  be  recognized, 
that  the  favorable  interval  probably  varies  with  the  stage  of 
learning.  The  effects  of  repetition  disappear  rather  rapidly  at 
first,  then  more  slowly.  In  the  early  stage  of  learning  it  is 
advantageous  to  have  practice  periods  follow  each  other  often  so 
that  the  effects  shall  not  decrease  too  much ;  while  in  the  later 
stages  of  learning,  long  intervals  result  in  only  slight  losses. 
After  anything  has  been  pretty  well  learned  one  or  two  repetitions 
at  intervals  of  a  week,  a  month,  or  even  a  year  may  restore  almost 
completely  one's  former  ability,  while  a  beginner  practicing  at 
such  intervals  would  never  attain  much  skill. 

THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   LEARNING   AND   OF   EFFICIENCY 

The  principles  enunciated  under  the  physiology  of  learning 
also  have  their  psychological  aspects.    In  learning   complex 


84  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

acts,  the  more  distinctly  psychological  processes  play  a  large  part. 
Along  with  selection  of  the  more  favorable  reactions  and  parts 
of  actions  for  repetition  and  the  ehmination  of  useless  movements, 
there  are  usually  changes  in  the  intensity  and  in  the  direction  of 
attention.  The  act  as  a  whole  requires  less  and  less  intensity  of 
attention,  until  a  very  complex  process  may  be  carried  on  while 
thinking  of  something  else.  Before  this  stage  of  learning  has 
been  reached  there  has  been  a  good  deal  of  limiting  and  shift- 
ing of  attention.  In  serving  a  tennis  ball,  one  at  first  con- 
sciously looks  to  see  how  the  racket  is  held  and  how  it  is 
brought  in  contact  with  the  ball.  He  also  notices  the  feeling 
of  the  racket  in  the  hand  and  the  arm  and  wrist  sensations  as 
the  strokes  are  made.  With  practice,  less  and  less  attention 
is  given  to  these  phases  of  the  process  and  more  and  more  to 
the  kind  of  motion  to  be  given  the  ball  and  to  the  place  where  it 
is  to  strike. 

Some  instructors  in  the  early  stages  of  practice  not  only  direct 
attention  to  the  position  of  the  racket  and  the  kind  of  arm  move- 
ment being  made,  but  prolong  the  practice  of  separate  phases  of 
the  movement  with  attention  to  the  details.  Others  show  how 
the  movement  as  a  whole  is  made  and  from  the  first  direct  the 
attention  of  their  pupils  to  the  end  to  be  accomplished,  with 
only  occasional  and  temporary  direction  of  attention  to  changes 
in  the  stroke  needed  in  order  to  accomplish  the  end  effectively. 
If  teacher  and  pupil  are  both  quick  to  see  what  changes  in 
movement  are  necessary  in  order  to  meet  the  situation  properly, 
progress  is  very  rapid  because  little  time  is  wasted  in  useless 
practice  of  parts  of  a  complex  series  of  movements  and  in  attend- 
ing to  details  that  are  best  dropped  out  of  consciousness  as  soon 
as  possible.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  pupil  does  not  make  many 
changes  in  his  manner  of  holding  and  swinging  his  racket  or 
does  not  notice  the  changes  that  he  does  make  and  their  effects, 
he  may  practice  a  great  deal  with  little  improvement,  unless  the 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  85 

teacher  directs  his  attention  to  the  essentials  and  drills  him  on 
special  phases  of  the  process. 

In  all  practice  there  is  more  or  less  variation  in  the  mode  of 
performance  and  a  selection  for  repetition  of  the  movements 
which  bring  the  most  favorable  results.  This  is  true  to  some 
extent  whether  or  not  there  is  consciousness  of  the  fact.  A 
horse  may  learn  to  wind  from  side  to  side  in  going  up  a  steep  hill, 
or  a  boy  may  learn  to  maintain  his  equilibrium  on  a  bicycle,  with- 
out being  conscious  of  the  changes  in  movement  involved.  Con- 
scious attention  to  the  right  details  may,  however,  in  some  cases, 
lead  to  much  quicker  learning.  For  example,  a  young  animal  when 
put  in  a  cage  may  make  a  much  greater  number  and  variety  of 
movements  than  an  older  one,  but  it  is  found  that  frequently  the 
older  animal  will  discover  more  quickly  just  what  movements 
have  helped  in  getting  out.  In  solving  puzzles  a  child  will  begin 
at  once,  attempting  to  do  the  thing  in  various  ways ;  while  an 
adult  is  more  likely  to  consider  what  is  essential  and  select 
particular  movements  to  be  made,  before  beginning  to  work.  He 
also  notices  more  definitely  what  happens  and  hence  usually  gets 
the  solution  with  fewer  trials  than  the  child  who  makes  the  same 
false  moves  again  and  again. 

An  expert  in  manual  work  makes  no  useless  movements  and  an 
expert  in  the  performance  of  intellectual  tasks  attends  to  nothing 
that  does  not  help  him  attain  his  ends.  Some  persons  in  learning 
seem  to  hit  upon  efficient  methods  by  luck  or  genius,  while  others 
consciously  discover  one  by  one  the  elements  that  contribute  to 
efficiency,  and  still  others  learn  little  by  practice  and  always  do 
things  only  with  the  expenditure  of  a  great  deal  of  energy. 

The  problem  of  the  teacher  is  to  know  what  details  to  call 
attention  to  and  how  long  to  dwell  upon  them.  In  general, 
it  is  not  well  to  prolong  attention  to  details  that  are  better 
ignored  later.  It  is  also  usually  better  to  call  less  attention  to 
sensations  being  experienced  by  the  learner  and  more  to  the 


86  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

results  being  obtained.  If  a  child  can  be  induced  to  grasp  a 
spoon,  a  pen,  or  a  tennis  racket  correctly  and  to  make  the  proper 
motions  without  calling  his  attention  to  the  exact  way  in  which 
he  is  to  hold  and  move  his  fingers,  then  his  attention  may  be 
given  more  completely  to  the  results  he  is  securing  by  his  move- 
ments of  the  implement.  Prolonged  attention  to  the  bodily 
sensations  interferes  with  rather  than  hastens  the  process  of 
learning. 

Another  principle  of  supreme  importance  nearly  always  violated 
by  teachers  is  that  special  attention  should  not  be  called  to  mis- 
takes that  are  made.  Such  directing  of  attention  naturally 
results  in  the  repetition  of  the  mistake,  and  only  a  learner  with 
intelligence  and  a  great  deal  of  voluntary  control  can  help  being 
disturbed  and  hindered  in  his  progress  by  it.  He  naturally 
thinks  of  what  not  to  do  instead  of  what  to  do,  and  this  tends 
to  make  him  repeat  the  movements  or  in  attempting  to  avoid 
them  he  makes  other  and  often  more  serious  mistakes.  One 
is  sometimes  helped  by  having  attention  called  to  errors 
providing  the  wrong  method  is  noticed  only  in  order  to  bring 
out  by  contrast  the  right  way  of  doing.  In  nearly  every 
case,  however,  it  is  much  better  if  possible  to  direct  attention 
to  the  thing  that  should  be  done  instead  of  to  what  should 
not  be  done.  This  is  especially  true  of  young  children  who 
have  little  power  of  directing  their  own  attention  and  of  con- 
trolling their  muscles.  There  are  many  wrong  or  inefl&cient 
ways  of  doing  things,  and  it  is  natural  to  try  several  of  these 
before  getting  the  right  one.  If  a  wrong  method  is  repeated,  a 
slight  change  in  the  situation  may  lead  to  the  use  of  other  methods 
until  the  right  one  is  adopted.  Attention  may  then  be  called 
to  this,  with  advantage.  On  the  other  hand,  calling  the  child's 
attention  to  the  various  errors  he  has  made  emphasizes  those 
errors  and  confuses  him  as  he  strives  to  avoid  each.  The  negative 
act  of  trying  to  avoid  errors  is  a  v/asteful  process  in  learning  and 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  87 

should  be  performed  only  where  a  single  type  of  error  has  become 
established  as  a  habit. 

MATURITY,    LEARNING,    AND   ABILITY 

Spaulding  found  that  chickens  that  were  kept  blinded  for 
from  one  to  three  days  were  about  as  successful  in  pecking  at 
food  as  those  that  had  had  opportunities  for  practice.  Breed 
found  that  if  kept  blinded  five  or  six  days  (being  fed  by  putting 
food  in  the  mouth)  they  were  at  first  not  skillful  in  getting  food, 
but  that  they  improved  so  rapidly  that  at  seven  days  they  were 
equal  to  normal  chickens.  Both  experimenters  interpret  the 
results  as  meaning  that  the  ability  to  take  food  successfully 
depends  in  part  upon  the  maturity  of  the  chicken  and  not  wholly 
upon  the  amount  of  practice  that  he  has.  Probably  the  five-days- 
old  chicks  were  unsuccessful  at  first  because  the  habit  of  taking 
food  from  the  hand  had  been  developed  before  they  had  a 
chance  to  try  to  peck  it  in  the  usual  way.  In  general,  instincts 
ripen,  skill  becomes  greater,  and  the  animal  or  child  becomes  more 
mature  not  only  when  active,  but  during  periods  when  there  is 
little  or  no  opportunity  for  learning  by  practice.  This  maturity 
is  shown  in  what  is  done  and  in  the  way  in  which  it  is  done. 
Practice  may  result  in  more  or  less  rapid  learning  according  to 
general  laws  of  development  favoring  or  opposing  rapid  maturity 
in  that  line  at  certain  ages  and  according  to  the  inherited  tend- 
encies of  the  individual. 

Some  persons  are  more  ready  than  others  in  storing  up  and  using 
the  material  furnished  by  experiences,  and  this  constitutes  what 
may  be  called  general  mental  abihty.  Again,  some  persons  can 
deal  with  certain  materials,  e.g.  musical  sounds,  with  much  greater 
facility  than  can  others.  This  constitutes  special  endowment, 
talent,  or  abihty.  With  exactly  the  same  environment  each  in- 
dividual will  mature  in  general  and  special  ability  at  different 
rates  and  ultimately  in  different  degrees,  just  as  people  vary  in 


88  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

rate  of  growth  and  ultimate  size  of  the  body  as  a  whole  and  in 
certain  parts.  In  neither  case  does  it  follow  that  the  one  who 
matures  most  r^idly  is  ultimately  further  ahead,  for  changes  may 
continue  for  a  longer  time  in  the  other.  Either  may  also  change 
more  or  less  suddenly  his  rate  of  maturing.  The  facts  regarding 
this  matter  are  most  clearly  seen  when  we  contrast  di£ferent  ani- 
mals or  different  races  of  men,  or  feeble-minded  with  normal  in- 
dividuals. A  robin  matures  much  earlier  than  a  chicken,  but 
probably  does  not  ultimately  become  more  inteUigent ;  a  negro 
child  learns  to  walk  and  talk  early,  but  his  mental  development 
becomes  dower  and  stops  sooner  than  in  the  case  of  whites.  A 
feeble-minded  child  may  seem  to  be  almost  the  same  as  normal 
children  till  three,  seven,  nine,  or  eleven  years  of  age,  then  have  his 
development  almost  completely  arrested.  He  may  learn  some 
new  things  of  a  specific  nature,  but  fails  to  make  any  adv^ance  in 
the  use  of  the  general  results  of  experience  and  training.  The 
Binet  tests  are  especially  designed  to  determine  the  extent  or 
progress  of  general  mental  development.  They  are  closely 
related  to,  but  not  necessarily  identical  with,  tests  of  general 
mental  ability  as  it  may  ultimately  be  revealed. 

Brightness  or  quickness  may  greatly  differ  in  indi\-iduals  who 
are  equally  mature,  hence  tests  of  general  ability,  which  includes 
brightness,  need  to  be  different  from  tests  of  maturity.  The  way 
in  which  a  child  solves  a  puzzle  or  defines  a  word  is  of  great  sig- 
nificance in  relation  to  his  mental  maturity,  while  the  number  of 
solutions  or  definitions  he  is  capable  of  in  a  given  time  is  more 
significant  of  his  brightness.  The  rapidity  of  performance  may 
not  even  be  a  true  indication  of  mental  quickness  if  the  individual 
has  had  some  special  training  in  that  particular  act. 

A  test  in  some  line  in  which  all  the  children  have  had  very 
nearly  an  equal  chance  to  learn  is  a  better  test  of  general  mental 
maturity  and  of  general  mental  ability  than  one  that  gives 
qpportimity  to  use  special  experience  and  training.    The  manner 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE   ENDOWMENTS  89 

of  doing  is  more  significant  of  the  degree  of  mental  maturity, 
while  the  amount  done  is  more  significant  of  general  mental 
ability.  Of  course  in  many  cases  speed  is  increased  by  more 
mature  methods  of  working  and  thinking. 

The  problem  of  special  mental  ability  is  not  easily  separated 
from  that  of  special  training.  An  individual  with  special 
musical  or  mathematical  training  may  seem  to  have  as  great  or 
greater  special  ability  of  that  kind  than  another  with  real  genius 
who  has  had  little  or  no  special  training.  To  count  these  two 
persons  as  equal,  in  planning  a  vocation  for  them,  would  be 
absurd,  yet  it  is  difficult  to  devise  tests  that  are  independent  of 
special  opportunities  for  learning  or  of  special  training. 

There  is  another  factor  in  general  and  special  ability  which 
renders  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  determine  by  means  of  tests 
what  the  general  or  special  success  of  an  individual  will  be. 
Intensity  of  efiE^ort,  adaptability,  initiative,  partly  describe  this 
elusive  factor.  A  biologist  cannot  tell  by  examining  an  animal 
whether  he  will  be  likely  to  survive  in  a  given  environment  or 
not,  until  he  knows  how  he  is  going  to  use  his  special  endowments 
of  color,  strength,  speed,  and  weapons  of  defense,  and  the  relations 
he  will  establish  with  his  environment.  In  a  new  or  changing 
environment  a  plant  or  animal  will  flourish  or  decline  in  a  way 
wholly  unpredictable,  as  witness  the  English  sparrow,  the 
brown-tail  moth,  the  grasshopper.  Men  of  all  degrees  and  varie- 
ties of  native  endowment  succeed  in  a  given  environment  and 
in  the  same  occupation,  some  by  one  means  and  some  by  another. 
An  important  element  in  intellectual  ability  is  shown  in  the  way 
in  which  a  man  brings  to  bear,  upon  the  problems  confronting 
him,  his  native  powers,  develops  some  of  them,  and  adapts  him- 
self in  one  way  or  another  to  the  conditions  confronting  him. 
This  element  in  intelligence  is  most  difficult  to  measure,  partly 
because  you  never  know  what  an  individual  will  do  in  this 
respect  until  you  give  him  sufficient  motive  for  action,  and  motive 


90  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

in  man  is  hard  to  regulate,  and  partly  because  it  is  hard  to  give  a 
test  that  will  truly  show  this  general  quality,  which  is  also  to 
some  extent  special  by  endowment  and  training.  The  person 
who  shows  great  resourcefulness,  initiativeness  and  inventiveness 
in  one  line,  such  as  mechanical  construction,  may  show  very  little 
in  another,  such  as  musical  composition  or  scientific  research. 

These  facts  make  it  difficult  to  formulate  the  general  laws 
governing  the  mental  development  of  man  and  still  harder  to 
predict  what  an  individual  who  appears  to  possess  certain 
general  and  special  abilities  will  do  when  confronted  with  new 
situations.  You  may  estimate  from  his  previous  success  in 
school  what  his  future  scholastic  success  will  be,  with  consider- 
able assurance,  but  it  is  almost  impossible  to  prophesy  his  future 
occupation  and  success  after  he  leaves  school. 

It  also  makes  reliable  studies  of  learning  processes  difficult. 
Practice  at  a  time  when  inner  conditions  are  favorable  to  rapid 
learning  and  maturing  may  produce  much  greater  results  than 
the  use  of  an  intrinsically  better  method  at  a  time  when  internal 
conditions  are  less  favorable.  An  educator  who  gives  each  kind  of 
training  at  the  time  when  inner  processes  are  most  favorable  to 
that  phase  of  development  may  get  far  better  results  than  one  who 
uses  technically  better  methods  with  less  regard  for  natural 
stages  of  development.  This  is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for 
stud3dng  children's  interests  as  indications  of  conditions  favorable 
to  certain  kinds  of  learning.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  to 
distinguish  the  temporary  interest  of  novelty  or  the  more  de- 
veloped interests  of  apperceptive  knowledge  and  experience  from 
those  due  to  the  strengthening  and  waning  of  fundamental 
instincts  at  the  various  ages  or  the  unfolding  of  special  inherited 
talents. 

HABITS 

Some  habits  are  formed  by  repeating  again  and  again,  in  the 
same  way  and  in  response  to  the  same  stimulus,  movements 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  91 

which  have  had  favorable  results.  In  a  large  proportion  of 
cases,  however,  habits  are  formed  in  a  different  way.  Usually 
there  is  a  period  of  learning  during  which  stimuli  vary  and  re- 
actions change  until  after  a  while  a  certain  phase  of  the  situation 
which  is  constant  and  significant  is  responded  to  by  the  same 
sort  of  reaction  again  and  again  without  much  variation.  This 
marks  the  final  stage  of  learning  in  which  habits  are  formed  and 
become  fixed.  Such  a  stage  is,  however,  not  necessarily  per- 
manently final  so  far  as  performing  the  complex  act  is  concerned. 
The  tennis  player  who  has  learned  how  to  hold  and  swing  the 
racket  and  strike  the  ball  in  any  desired  direction  acquires  after 
some  further  practice  a  pretty  definite  habit  of  serving,  as  his 
position  in  standing  and  his  movements  in  tossing  and  striking 
the  ball  indicate.  A  change  in  his  racket  will  modify  it  only 
slightly.  His  position  in  standing  and  his  strokes  in  returning 
the  ball  will  become  definitely  habitual  less  soon  because  the 
situations  vary  so  much,  but  after  a  while  he  will  also  have 
rather  characteristic  habits  of  movement  in  returning  balls, 
according  as  they  are  high  or  low,  slow  or  swift,  on  the  right  side 
or  on  the  left.  If  he  attempts  nothing  but  the  moderate  direct 
stroke,  these  various  habits  may  become  well  established.  If, 
however,  he  undertakes  cut  strokes,  every  one  of  these  habits  will 
be  departed  from.  New  habits  may  entirely  replace  the  old  ones 
or  may  be  developed  in  addition  to  them,  and  one  or  the  other 
be  used  at  will.  The  first  effect  of  the  attempt  to  use  the  cut 
stroke  is  always  a  falling  off  in  ability  to  win  games.  In  nearly  all 
complex  learning  there  are  one  or  more  periods  in  which  progress 
ceases  and  often  appears  to  recede  because  of  changes  in  the 
method  of  performing  the  act.  If  the  new  method  is  a  good  one, 
advance  again  takes  place  as  soon  as  facility  in  its  use  has  been 
obtained  by  practice.  Very  frequently  the  attempt  to  change 
the  method,  as  in  changing  the  stroke  in  tennis,  makes  it  im- 
possible to  use  the  old  method  successfully  while  the  new  is  being 


92  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

learned.  If  each  method  is  practiced  separately  with  the  definite 
purpose  of  using  the  one  method  or  the  other,  the  interference 
between  the  two  is  less. 

The  "plateaus"  so  often  found  in  learning  curves  are  fre- 
quently, if  not  always,  due  either  to  variations  in  interest  in  the 
task  or  to  a  change  in  the  method  of  performing  some  part  of  it. 

As  has  already  been  indicated,  improvement  with  practice  is 
marked  by  the  doing  away  with  useless  movements  and  decrease 
of  attention.  This  is  the  chief  reason  why  the  task  becomes  easier 
and  one  of  the  principal  reasons  why  the  speed  of  performance  is 
so  greatly  increased.  Another  reason  for  increased  rate  of  work 
is  because,  as  processes  become  simplified  and  mechanical  to 
the  individual,  other  processes  may  be  carried  on  at  the  same 
time.  It  is  due  to  such  overlapping  of  physical  and  mental  pro- 
cesses that  we  are  able  to  perform  so  easily  such  complex  acts 
as  standing  erect,  holding  a  book  correctly,  moving  the  eyes  along 
the  parallel  lines  of  print,  pausing  to  see  all  that  is  necessary  in 
order  to  recognize  words  and  phrases,  moving  the  vocal  organs 
in  uttering  sounds  and  giving  each  the  proper  emphasis,  while 
thinking  of  the  meaning  of  the  sentences  read  and  perhaps  also 
criticizing  the  literary  style.  The  perfecting  of  one  habit  facili- 
tates the  forming  of  another,  and  attention  which  perhaps  was 
formerly  whoUy  occupied  with  one  or  the  other  of  the  processes  is 
now  needed  only  slightly  or  occasionally,  except  for  those  that 
have  not  yet  reached  the  habit  stage  and  been  properly  grafted 
on  to  the  others  or  fused  with  them. 

One  of  the  practical  problems  in  pedsigogy  is  to  determine  the 
kind  and  amount  of  practice  that  should  be  given  in  learning 
various  useful  things,  such  as  writing.  How  good  and  how  rapid 
should  one's  writing  be  before  practice  for  the  purpose  of  further 
improvement  shall  cease  ?  We  know  that  there  is  a  stage  beyond 
which  further  practice  shows  little  results.  A  good  deal  of  time 
is  required  to  reach  that  stage ;  and  if  continued  effort  is  not  made 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  93 

to  maintain  or  raise  the  standard,  there  is  danger  of  dropping 
back.  On  the  other  hand,  if  one  stops  a  little  short  of  his  best, 
then  tries  to  keep  his  writing  nearly  the  same  all  the  time  what- 
ever he  may  be  doing,  it  is  possible  to  write  page  after  page  uni- 
formly and  with  little  or  no  thought  given  to  the  process.  This 
result  will  be  greatly  facilitated  if  the  same  style  of  script  is 
used  and  the  same  kind  of  movement  employed  in  all  practice. 
If  writing  is  regarded  simply  as  a  means  of  expressing  thought,  it 
is  undoubtedly  wise  to  thus  make  it  a  fixed  habit. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  permanship  is  regarded  as  an  art  worthy 
in  itself  of  the  highest  degree  of  cultivation,  then  various  styles  of 
writing  should  be  practiced  and  the  forming  of  fixed  habits 
avoided. 

Efficiency  demands  that  anything  which  needs  to  be  done 
often  should  be  performed  with  ease  and  facility  and  with  only  as 
much  elegance  as  the  case  requires.  If,  however,  a  subject  is 
being  taken  up  for  purposes  of  general  development,  care  should 
be  taken  to  vary  the  process  in  a  variety  of  ways  and  to  postpone 
the  formation  of  fixed  habits  which  will  be  likely  to  interfere  with 
further  development.  One  who  is  to  perform  day  after  day  a 
certain  kind  of  mathematical  calculation  may,  for  purposes  of 
efficiency  and  of  economy  of  time,  learn  and  practice  one  method 
only  of  solving  such  problems ;  while  the  person  who  wishes  to 
develop  his  mathematical  powers  could  more  profitably  study 
fundamental  principles  and  receive  some  practice  in  various 
methods  of  solving  problems  of  the  same  type. 

GENERAL   AND   SPECIAL   TRAINING 

The  organism  is  a  unit  and  the  vigor  of  activity  of  even  the 
smallest  part  depends  to  some  extent  upon  the  condition  of  the 
whole  body  and  especially  upon  the  action  of  the  vital  organs. 
The  reverse  of  this  statement  is  that  the  activity  of  any  part  of 
the  body  affects  other  parts  of  the  body,  especially  those  of  general 


94  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

vital  significance.  Exercising  one  arm  modifies  the  breathing 
and  the  heart  beat,  while  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  blood 
flowing  to  different  parts  of  the  body  are  changed.  The  effects 
upon  corresponding  parts  of  the  body  are  greater  than  upon 
non-corresponding  parts.  For  example,  the  left  arm  may  be 
increased  in  size  by  exercising  the  right  arm  more  than  can  the 
legs  by  such  exercise. 

The  nervous  system  is  of  especial  importance  in  spreading  the 
effects  of  activity  to  other  parts.  Experiments  show  that  if  an 
auditory  stimulus  is  given  at  just  the  right  interval  before  the 
touch  stimulus  of  striking  the  leg  just  below  the  knee  cap,  the 
reflex  movement  of  the  foot  will  be  increased. 

It  is  evident  that  continued  activity  of  any  part  of  the  body 
not  only  develops  that  part,  but  other  parts  whose  activity  is 
indirectly  increased  by  the  practice.  The  reverse  also  holds  true. 
If  the  activity  of  one  part  of  the  body  decreases  activity  in  some 
other  part,  the  practice  which  develops  one  part  may  inhibit  the 
development  of  another.  The  effects  of  practice  are  therefore 
(i)  local,  affecting  the  parts  exercised ;  (2)  diffused  and  special 
in  so  far  as  other  particular  activities  are  changed  ;  and  (3)  general, 
in  so  far  as  vital  processes  concerned  in  all  activity  are  affected. 
A  bicycle  rider  develops  especially  the  muscles  of  his  lower  limbs 
and  to  some  extent  special  muscles  in  other  parts  of  the  body. 
The  rower  develops  especially  the  muscles  of  the  shoulders  and 
back,  while  both  develop  the  muscles  controlling  the  lungs, 
those  of  the  heart,  and  of  other  vital  organs.  There  is  also 
specialized  and  general  development  of  brain  centers  in  both 
cases.  If  the  bicyclist  turns  to  foot  racing,  he  will  be  better 
prepared  for  success  than  if  he  had  not  ridden  a  bicycle,  because 
his  vital  organs  will  be  better  developed  and  some  of  the  muscles 
of  his  legs  will  be  stronger.  In  a  similar  way  the  rower  will  be 
better  prepared  for  hammer  throwing  by  his  previous  practice 
in  rowing.    Both  have  some  preparation  for  football  because  of 


MODIFICATION   OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS 


95 


general  increase  in  vitality  and  increased  strength  of  some  of 
the  muscles  to  be  used.  Neither  would  be  materially  helped  by 
the  special  technique  that  he  had  developed  by  his  previous 
practice. 

Special  skill  and  efficiency,  as  we  have  already  seen,  result 
from  the  limiting  of  varied  movements  to  a  few  useful  ones 
accurately  made.  The  farther  this  process  is  carried  the  greater 
the  efficiency  in  the  specialized  task,  but  the  less  are  the  effects 
upon  the  vital  organs  and  upon  other  parts  of  the  body  which 
are  no  longer  active  to  any  considerable  extent  as  skill  is  attained. 
Persons  engaged  in  physical  training  usually  take  varied  exercise 
as  well  as  specialized  practice  in  order  that  general  vitality  may 
be  maintained  and  increased  and  in  order  that  a  better  balance 
in  the  development  of  parts  of  the  body  may  be  secured.  Even 
those  who  care  only  for  winning  in  a  certain  kind  of  an  athletic 
event  follow  this  plan,  while  those  who  are  concerned  for  general 
physical  development  rather  than  for  specialized  skill  in  one  line, 
give  much  more  attention  to  general  development  than  to  spe- 
cialized practice.  It  is  clear  from  the  above  that  the  early 
stages  of  practice  in  which  the  activity  is  diffused  have  more 
general  effects  than  the  later  stages  in  which  special  habits  of 
technique  are  formed.  The  special  habits  developed  in  one 
kind  of  exercise  may  not  only  fail  to  help  in  doing  something 
else,  but  may  interfere  with  success  at  least  for  a  time.  The  foot- 
ball player  who  has  learned  to  hold  the  ball  tight  against  his 
body  and  run  with  it,  has  some  trouble  in  learning  to  pass  it  as 
soon  as  he  gets  it  in  playing  basket  ball ;  and  the  tennis  player 
when  playing  hand  ball  at  first  finds  it  hard  to  strike  with  the 
hand  instead  of  with  the  racket.  In  both  cases,  however,  the 
previous  practice  in  passing  and  placing  balls  helps  specifically  in 
the  new  game.  Although  every  exercise  produces  general  effects, 
it  is  evident  that  some  produce  more  effects  than  others  upon 
the  vital  organs,  whose  improvement  increases  the  efficiency  of 


96  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

all  parts,  and  some  exercises  provide  a  better  preparation  for  one 
occupation  than  for  another. 

There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  these  same  principles  hold 
with  regard  to  cerebral  and  associational  mental  activity.  There 
are  differences  in  mental  vigor  just  as  there  are  in  physical,  and 
every  special  mental  activity  has  associated  and  general  as  well 
as  local  effects.  Practice  in  solving  problems  in  mathematics, 
science,  or  language  not  only  increases  one's  ability  to  solve  those 
particular  problems  and  similar  ones,  but  adds  something  to  the 
power  to  perform  any  mental  task,  or,  in  other  words,  to  general 
mental  power.  Further,  the  practice  in  dealing  with  language 
problems  in  one  language  may  be  of  more  help  in  studying  other 
languages  than  in  scientific  research. 

The  old  doctrine  of  mental  discipline  founded  upon  the  false 
idea  of  special  faculties,  which  assumes  that  all  acts  of  memory 
are  alike  and  similarly  those  of  perception,  reasoning,  etc.,  is 
admittedly  absurd.  The  new  idea  of  mental  discipline  based  on 
the  truths  of  physiology  and  psychology  is  yet  to  be  worked  out 
scientifically.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe,  however,  that 
there  are  general  and  special  powers  of  the  mind  which  may  be 
increased  by  exercise  of  special  kinds,  some  exercises  being  more 
effective  than  others  for  general  and  special  purposes.  Just 
what  kinds  of  study  produce  most  general  effects  and  just  which 
kinds  are  the  best  preparation  for  success  in  a  particular  line, 
must  be  determined  by  experience  and  experiment.  It  is,  how- 
ever, evident  that  the  acquisition  of  specific  forms  of  knowledge 
and  mental  ability  must  have  more  general  effects  than  the 
practice  in  using  them  after  special  habits  have  been  developed 
and  the  activity  has  become  more  restricted. 

FATIGUE   IN   LEARNING 

The  process  of  learning  is  closely  related  to  that  of  fatigue. 
Some  fatigue  in  the  sense  of  liberating  energy  through  the  using 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  97 

up  of  the  portions  of  the  body  that  are  active  is  preliminary  to 
the  process  of  building  a  reorganized  tissue  which  shall  perma- 
nently retain  the  effects  of  the  practice.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a 
very  definite  act  is  performed  many  times  until  the  most  readily 
decomposed  materials  of  the  tissues  involved  have  been  used  up, 
there  is  a  condition  known  as  fatigue  which  is  due  in  part  to  the 
clogging  and  poisonous  effects  of  the  production  of  waste  material 
during  activity,  more  rapidly  than  it  can  be  removed  by  the 
circulation  of  blood  in  the  part.  This  fatigue  may  be  shown 
by  decreased  vigor  and  rapidity  of  working,  but  is  more  often 
shown  by  irregular  activity  or  by  the  bringing  of  other  parts 
into  action. 

If  one  is  required  to  tap  with  his  finger  until  he  becomes 
fatigued,  there  is  some  irregularity  in  rate  and  manner  of  moving, 
then  a  change  in  the  way  of  tapping  whereby  the  muscles  of 
the  forearm  or  whole  arm  are  used  instead  of  those  of  the  finger. 
If  the  other  fingers  are  kept  on  the  table  so  that  this  cannot  be 
done  and  a  strong  effort  is  made  to  keep  the  finger  moving  as 
rapidly  as  ever,  other  muscles  will  be  brought  into  action,  such  as 
those  of  the  jaw  in  setting  the  teeth,  or  of  the  brow  in  frowning, 
or  of  the  other  hand  in  clenching  the  fist,  as  strong  effort  is  put 
forth.  In  other  words  the  change  is  from  accurate  movement 
of  a  few  muscles  to  movements  that  are  more  indefinite  and 
futile  in  attaining  the  end,  a  change  which  parallels  in  an  almost 
inverse  way  the  changes  that  take  place  in  learning, 

A  person  of  determination  may  continue  by  force  of  will  to 
perform  his  tasks  after  he  has  become  fatigued,  but  in  doing  so  he 
expends  much  energy  in  making  useless  movements.  As  a  conse- 
quence he  may  experience  general  fatigue  as  well  as  special 
fatigue  of  the  parts  usefully  employed.  In  this  fact  that  general 
fatigue  is  produced  not  only  by  general  exercise  but  by  pro- 
longed and  excessive  activity  of  a  few  muscles,  we  have  another 
parallel  of  what  takes  place  in  general  and  special  development. 


98  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

It  may  be  admitted  that  the  effort  of  working  when  fatigued 
may  have  some  disciplinary  results  in  that  various  parts  of  the 
body  are  forced  into  activity.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  still 
clearer  that  if  diffused  and  useless  movements  follow  when  fatigue 
begins,  the  process  of  learning  in  the  sense  of  improvement  in 
the  doing  must  be  reversed.  Clear  evidence  of  this  was  found  by 
Professor  Book  in  his  experiments  upon  learning  to  typewrite.  A 
beginner  writes  at  first  by  letters,  later  by  words,  and  still  later 
by  clauses  and  sentences.  If  one  who  was  in  the  word  stage  of 
writing  practiced  when  fatigued,  he  never  advanced  while  thus 
practicing  to  the  clause  stage,  but  he  was  very  likely  to  drop  back 
into  the  less  rapid  and  efficient  letter  stage  of  writing.  A  habit 
that  is  pretty  well  formed  may  be  maintained  while  practicing 
when  fatigued,  but  learning  in  the  sense  of  progressing  into  a 
more  efl&cient  method  of  working  is  not  possible.  It  seems,  then, 
that  in  the  earlier  stages  of  learning  anything,  practicing  when 
fatigued  not  only  does  not  advance  one,  but  is  very  likely  to  retard 
him.  If  one  practices  only  when  he  is  tired,  he  is  almost  sure 
to  form  crude  and  inefficient  habits  of  doing  the  thing  which  if 
long  used  are  hard  to  break.  It  follows  from  this  that  if  one 
must  work  when  tired  it  should  not  be  at  tasks  in  which  the 
best  method  of  performance  is  yet  to  be  learned.  This  has 
much  the  same  basis  as  the  familiar  rule  that  difficult  tasks  should 
be  undertaken  when  one  is  fresh  and  vigorous. 

Just  as  special  technique  gained  in  one  line  has  little  effect 
upon  other  kinds  of  technique  or  general  power,  so  does  local 
fatigue  (not  prolonged  until  it  becomes  general)  have  Httle 
effect  upon  fatigue  of  other  parts  or  upon  general  fatigue.  Rest 
may  therefore  be  obtained  from  one  kind  of  activity  by  engaging 
in  another.  Again,  just  as  some  kinds  of  learning  prepare  for 
others,  so  some  kinds  of  fatigue  are  best  relieved  by  certain 
other  kinds  of  activity.  A  person  who  is  experiencing  general 
fatigue  is  in  an  entirely  different  state  from  one  who  is  locally 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  99 

fatigued,  just  as  a  person  of  general  vigor  differs  from  one  who 
has  little  vitality  but  a  great  deal  of  technical  skill  of  some 
kind. 

The  relations  between  learning  and  fatigue  are  such  that  from 
the  standpoint  of  science,  investigations  as  to  the  effects  of  fatigue 
produced  by  a  certain  kind  of  activity  upon  other  special  parts  of 
the  body  and  upon  the  vitality  as  a  whole,  will  help  in  determining 
the  effects  of  one  kind  of  practice  upon  other  activities  and  for 
general  ability.  On  the  practical  side  it  is  probable  that  of  two 
men  doing  the  same  work,  the  one  who  so  arranges  his  periods  of 
work  and  his  rest  and  recreation  periods  and  who  works  in  such 
a  way  as  to  become  least  fatigued,  will  have  gained  most  general 
discipline  and  development. 

The  phenomena  of  fatigue  complicate  some  of  the  studies  of 
learning  processes.  There  is  usually  a  "warming  up"  stage  at 
the  beginning  of  practice,  due  probably  to  increased  circulation 
in  the  active  parts ;  then  in  the  latter  part  of  a  period  of  practice, 
fatigue  may  counteract  some  of  the  practice  effects.  Again, 
fatigue  is  more  or  less  rhythmical,  which  is  analogous  to  the 
plateaus  in  learning  and  may  sometimes  be  partially  responsible 
for  them. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Give  examples  of  persons  in  the  same  environment  being  affected  by 
different  phases  of  their  environment  and  developing  in  different  ways. 

2.  Study  and  describe  the  early  learning  of  some  animal  or  child. 

3.  Report  instances  observed  in  which  adults  learn  largely  by  trial  and 
success;  or  set  them  to  solve  puzzles  and  note  the  method  used;  e.g., 
put  a  penny  on  a  card  and  balance  it  on  the  finger,  then  knock  the  card  out, 
leaving  the  penny. 

4.  Discuss  the  relative  advantages  of  children  learning  games,  music, 
arithmetic,  or  geography  by  actual  experiences,  imitative  or  chance,  and  by 
imaginative  experience  or  by  learning  symbols  or  rules. 

5.  Report  observations  as  to  the  relative  advantages  of  short  or  long 
periods  of  practice  and  of  longer  or  shorter  intervals  between  practice  periods. 


lOO 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 


6.  Study  in  detail  the  processes  by  which  efficiency  has  been  gained  in 
some  line  and  report  the  main  facts  as  to  progress  and  as  to  what  helped  or 
hindered. 

7.  Give  examples  of  the  influence  of  maturing  upon  interest  and  the 
rate  of  learning. 

8.  Give  examples  of  habits  of  your  own  or  others  that  are  below  one's 
limit  of  performance  and  state  why  it  would  or  would  not  pay  to  change 
them  and  develop  others  closer  to  the  limit  of  possible  performance. 

9.  Give  examples  showing  that  special  practice  gives  general  results. 
10.   Give  specific  instances  of  acts  that  may  be  performed  when  fatigued 

and  of  those  that  should  not  be,  giving  reasons. 


References 
Books 


Bolton 

Kirkpatrick  (2) 

Rugg 

Book 

Lyon 

Rush 

Colvin 

Marsh 

Sandiford 

Courseult 

Montessori 

Starch 

Dnunmond 

Mott 

Stern 

Gould 

Oflfnir 

Thorndike 

Gulick 

Pyle 

Washburn 

Heck  (2) 

Ruger 

Watson 

Hewins 

Articles 

Book,  W.  F.     The  R61e  of  the  Teacher  in  the  Most  Expeditious  and 

Economic  Learning.    J.  Educ.  Psych.,  1910,  Vol.  i,  pp.  185-199. 
Brown,  J.  C.    An  Investigation  on  the  Value  of  Drill  Work  in  the  Fimda- 

mental  Operations  in  Arithmetic.     J.  Educ.  Psych.,   191 2,  Vol.  3,  pp. 

485-492,  560-576.    Also  1913,  Vol.  4, 
Dolbear,  Katherine  E.    Precocious  Children.    Ped.  Sem.,  191 2,  Vol.  19, 

pp.  461-491. 
EUison,  Louise.    The   Acquisition  of  Technical  Skill.     Ped.  Sem.,  1909, 

Vol.  16,  pp.  49-63. 
Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.    An  Experiment   in   Memorizing,   Versus  Incidental 

Learning.    J.  Educ.  Pysch.,  1914,  Vol,  5,  pp.  405-412. 
Kuhnes,  E.  L.    Experimental  Study  of  Dynamic  Periodicity  as  Influenced 

by  Diurnal,  Weekly,  Monthly  and  Yearly  Efficiency.    Ped.   Sem., 

1915,  Vol.  22,  pp.  326-346. 


MODIFICATION  OF  NATIVE  ENDOWMENTS  loi 

Lunt,  F.  S.    Some  Investigations  of  Habits  of  Study.    J.  Educ.  Psych., 

191 1,  Vol.  I,  pp.  344-348. 
Lyons,  C.  K.    The  Doctrine  of  Formal  Discipline.    Ped.  Sem.,  1914,  Vol. 

21,  pp.  343-393- 
Lyon,  D.  O.    The  Relation  of  Length  of  Material  to  Time  Taken  for 

Learning  and  the  Optimum  Distribution  of  Time.    J.  Educ-  Psych., 

1914,  Vol.  5,  pp.  1-9. 
Meyerhardt,  M.  W.    Economical  Learning.    Ped.  Sem.,  1906,  Vol.  13,  pp. 

145-184. 
Norsworthy,   Naomi.    Acquisition   as  Related    to  Retention.    J.   Educ. 

Psych.,  191 2,  Vol.  3,  pp.  214-218. 
O'Shea,  N.  V.     Popular  Misconceptions  Concerning  Precocity  in  Children. 

Science,  191 1,  Vol.  34,  pp.  666-674. 
Pyle,  W.  H.     Concentrated  Versus  Distributed  Practice.    J.  Educ.  Psych., 

1914,  Vol.  5,  pp.  247-258. 
Richardson,  R.  F.    The  Learning  Process  in  the  Acquisition  of  Skill.    Ped. 

Sem.,  191 2,  Vol.  19,  pp.  376-394. 
Shepard  and  Breed.    Maturation  and  Use  in  the  Development  of  an  In- 
stinct.   Jr.  Animal  Behavior,  1913,  Vol.  3,  pp.  274-285. 
Terman,    Lewis   M.     Genius  and  Stupidity.     Ped.   Sem.,  1906,  Vol.   13, 

pp.  307-373. 
Terman,  L.  M.     A    Study  in    Precocity   and    Prematuration.     Am.   Jr. 

Psychol.,  1905,  Vol.  16,  pp.  145-183. 
Witmer,   L.    On   the  Relation  of  Intelligence   to   EflSciency.      Psychol. 

Clinic,  1915,  Vol.  9,  pp.  61-86. 


-IL' 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HUMAN  INFANT 

EARLY  MOVEMENTS 

The  human  infant  is  a  very  helpless  being.  This  is  in  accord- 
ance with  the  general  law  that  young  animals  have  just  enough 
power  of;movement  so  that  when  their  instincts  are  supplemented 
by  those  of  their  parents,  they  are  able  to  live. 

The  automatic  movements  of  independent  respiration,  circula- 
tion, and  digestion  begin  as  soon  as  the  child  is  born. 

At  or  soon  after  birth,  reflex  movements  may  be  called  forth 
by  stimulating  any  of  the  senses,  and  most  of  these  reflexes, 
such  as  closing  the  eye  when  the  Ud  is  touched,  pushing  out  with 
the  tongue  unfavorable  objects,  and  withdrawing  a  hand  or 
foot  that  is  painfully  stimulated,  are,  from  the  first,  useful; 
while  others,  such  as  clasping  with  toes  and  fingers  an  object 
touching  them,  were  probably  at  one  time  in  the  race  history 
useful  in  helping  the  mother  to  carry  the  child. 

The  instinctive  movements  are  not  well  developed  since  human 
parents  are  prepared  to  do  almost  everything  except  breathe 
and  digest  for  the  child.  Even  the  necessary  and  important 
instinct  of  sucking  is  sometimes  not  well  performed  at  first. 
Usually,  however,  it  is.  A  strong  infant  held  in  a  certain  posi- 
tion and  lightly  touched  on  the  cheek  will,  when  hungry,  also 
make  movements  of  the  head  favorable  to  the  finding  of  the 
source  of  nourishment.  There  is  also  in  strong  infants  early 
evidence  of  rudimentary  attempts  at  maintaining  equilibrium  of 
head,  and  a  little  later  of  body  also. 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HUMAN  INFANT    103 

The  expressive  mechanism  for  crying  is  well  developed  from 
the  first,  because  this  is  needed  to  call  the  parents  to  relieve 
unfavorable  conditions;  while  smiling  and  laughing  do  not 
appear  till  much  later,  because  such  movements  are  of  little 
biological  value  at  this  time.  Later  when  the  parental  instincts 
of  the  parents  tend  to  decrease,  such  pleasing  acts  are  doubt- 
less helpful  in  securing  continued  care  and  protection. 

Starting  at  sudden  sounds,  especially  when  they  are  accom- 
panied by  a  jar  (as  the  sound  of  the  slamming  of  a  door),  is 
very  marked.  This  is  perhaps  the  first  evidence  of  a  general 
instinctive  fear  of  strange  and  strong  stimuli.  A  more  spe- 
ciahzed  reaction  which  was  perhaps  useful  in  an  earlier  period  of 
race  history  is  shown  in  the  tendency,  beginning  in  the  first 
month  and  lasting  several  weeks,  to  shrink  together  and  clasp 
as  if  afraid  of  falling,  when  lowered  suddenly.  Sometimes  when 
clothes  are  removed  so  that  there  is  lack  of  their  supporting 
contact  with  most  of  the  body,  the  same  instinctive  fear  is  mani- 
fested. 

The  tendency  to  bring  the  hands  to  the  mouth,  so  prominent 
almost  from  the  first,  may  be  the  result  either  of  the  habitual 
inter-uterine  position,  or  of  an  instinct  which  was  useful  in  the 
earlier  history  of  the  race.  The  tendency  is  certainly  very  helpful 
to  the  child  in  obtaining  touch  sensations,  since  objects  are  by 
this  movement  brought  to  the  mouth  for  closer  examination  by 
tongue  and  lips. 

Since  ability  to  use  the  sense  organs  is  useful  to  the  child,  we 
find  a  partially  developed  reflex  tendency  to  do  so.  The  eyes 
close  at  a  touch  upon  them  or  the  skin  near  them,  but  not  until 
later  at  the  visual  stimulus  of  a  threatened  blow.  Experience 
is  perhaps  necessary  to  develop  this  reflex.  Turning  the  head 
to  hear  and  moving  the  fingers  to  get  clear  touch  sensations 
are  probably  only  partially  mature  reflexes.  Movements  of 
taste  organs  are  native,  while  snuffing  for  odors  is  late  in  develop- 


I04  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

ment.  Before  the  beginning  of  the  second  quarter,  however, 
the  eyes  close  at  a  threatened  blow,  move  together,  tixate,  and 
follow  moving  objects ;  while  a  little  later  there  is  an  accurate 
turning  of  the  head  toward  the  source  of  sound,  and  also  a  marked 
tendency  to  use  the  skin  of  hps,  fingers,  and  toes  in  getting 
sensations  of  touch. 

From  the  first,  the  infant  makes  numerous  spontaneous 
and  random  movements  of  almost  every  part  of  the  body, 
independently  of  external  stimuli.  These  movements,  resulting 
from  organic  conditions,  growth  changes,  and  the  consequent 
outflow  of  energy,  are  important  means  of  developing  the  muscles 
and  preparing  by  variety  of  experience  for  the  voluntary  control 
of  the  muscles  thus  exercised. 

INCREASE   IN  CONNECTION  BETWEEN  MOVEMENTS 

During  the  first  few  weeks  the  movements  of  an  infant  seem 
to  depend  more  upon  general  bodily  conditions  than  upon  out- 
ward stimulation  of  any  of  the  special  senses,  and  the  movements 
of  the  different  parts  of  the  body  seem  to  have  little  relation  to 
each  other.  Soon,  however,  outward  and  special  stimuli  become 
more  effective,  so  that  crying  and  restless  movements,  due  to 
bodily  condition,  may  frequently  be  checked  by  auditory, 
tactual,  or  visual  stimulations,  such  as  singing,  patting  the  child, 
or  shaking  something  before  his  eyes. 

In  the  second  quarter,  many  combinations  of  movement 
take  place.  The  eyes  not  only  turn  toward  and  follow  a  moving 
object,  but  turn  toward  a  sound  or  toward  a  portion  of  the  body 
that  is  touched,  thus  bringing  more  than  one  sense  into  action 
and  associating  the  resulting  sensations.  The  lips,  hands,  and 
often  the  feet  also,  not  only  move  when  touched,  but  move  into 
contact  with  objects  seen,  which  are  then  tested  by  other  tactile 
surfaces  and  perhaps  by  eye  and  ear.  In  the  meantime,  the 
first  reactions  against  the  tipping  of  head  or  body  have  developed, 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HUMAN  INFANT     105 

so  that  equilibrium  is  maintained  against  the  tendency  of  head 
and  body  to  move  out  of  balance.  Not  only  this,  but  equiUb- 
rium  is  maintained  while  grasping,  and  head  and  body  usually 
move  with  the  hand  in  reaching  for  an  object.  The  movements 
of  different  parts  of  the  body  are  therefore  no  longer  independent 
of  each  other,  but  very  closely  connected.  Fixed,  mental  asso- 
ciations of  sensations  and  movements  are  thus  early  formed. 

In  this  and  the  next  quarter  a  new  kind  of  movement  becomes 
very  prominent.  Random  and  meaningless  movements  of  parts 
of  the  body  change  to  those  repeated  rhythmic  and  partially 
coordinated  movements  of  various  muscle  groups  which  we  desig- 
nate as  play.  Certain  movements  of  limbs  or  vocal  organs  are 
produced  over  and  over  for  several  days,  then  a  new  one  is  prac- 
ticed for  a  while.  Various  combinations  of  movements  are  made, 
and  the  muscles  and  the  senses  are  thus  exercised  and  associated 
in  countless  ways,  as  the  child  amuses  himself. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  first  year  not  only  are  movements, 
previously  made,  repeated  in  play,  but  movements  seen  and 
sounds  heard  are  often  playfully  imitated  and  repeated  over 
and  over. 

The  process  of  combination  goes  still  further,  and  the  child 
begins  to  move  toward  things  by  crawling  or  otherwise,  or  to 
stand,  holding  with  one  hand  and  reaching  with  the  other,  and 
at  about  a  year  to  maintain  equilibrium  while  standing  and 
walking,  and  in  getting  up  and  down  when  he  grasps  something 
on  the  floor. 

Looked  at  in  a  purely  objective  way,  the  most  marked  change 
in  the  movements  of  a  child  during  the  first  year  is,  therefore, 
not  in  number,  but  in  complexity,  coordination,  and  definiteness. 
From  the  use  of  one  sense  and  one  or  two  groups  of  muscles  at  a 
time,  the  child  has  progressed  to  the  combined  use  of  muscles  of 
legs,  body,  arms,  fingers,  head,  and  eyes,  in  getting  objects 
and  obtaining  visual,   tactual,   and  auditory  sensations  from 


lo6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

them.  The  early  movements  were  mostly  uncomiected  and  un- 
coordinated, and  ended  in  nothing  but  movement;  while  at 
the  close  of  the  first  year  they  are  combined  and  correlated  with 
each  other,  and  attain  the  end  of  changing  the  position  of  the 
child  or  of  some  object.  These  changes  toward  more  complex  and 
unified  movement  are  doubtless  preparatory  to,  and  correlated 
with,  corresponding  changes  in  the  conscious  states  of  the  child. 

EARLY  MENTAL   STATES 

"What  is  the  baby  thinking  about?"  is  one  of  the  most 
fascinating  and  puzzling  of  questions.  Sympathetic  imagination 
endows  him  with  a  thousand  adult  feelings  and  ideas,  or  dimly 
remembered  childish  states.  Yet  no  one  can  represent  the  baby's 
ideas  except  in  terms  of  his  own  present  or  former  mental  states. 
The  important  epoch  included  in  the  first  year  or  two  of  life,  to 
which  the  memory  of  men  goeth  not  back,  cannot  therefore  be 
pictured  in  its  true  colors  by  the  most  gifted  child  lover. 

The  scientist  is  almost  equally  impotent  in  attempting  to 
discover  and  describe  the  real  mental  states  of  an  infant.  He 
is  perhaps  strongest  on  the  negative  side;  for,  reasoning  from 
general  principles,  he  can  say  with  considerable  assurance  what 
is  not  in  the  baby's  mind,  just  as  he  can  affirm  that  a  planet  with- 
out atmosphere  has  no  animal  life  like  our  own,  or  that  in  a 
certain  age  in  the  world's  history  there  could  have  been  no 
animal  life  of  a  certain  kind  because  it  was  too  hot  or  too  cold, 
or  because  there  was  an  absence  of  appropriate  food.  When, 
therefore,  the  psychologist  finds  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
cortex  of  the  brain  (which  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  is  the 
seat  of  consciousness)  is  not  active  during  the  first  three  months 
of  life,  and  when  he  observes  that  nearly  everything  that  the 
child  does  is  sometimes  done  equally  well,  or  even  better,  when 
asleep  than  when  awake,  and  that  in  children  born  without  a 
brain  the  movements  are  nearly  the  same  as  in  normal  children, 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HUMAN  INFANT    107 

and  when  he  remembers  that  the  child  cannot  have  any  knowl- 
edge gained  from  experience  that  the  adult  has,  he  is  warranted 
in  saying  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  young  infant's  mind  suffi- 
ciently like  what  is  in  the  adult's  mind  to  warrant  the  use  of  the 
same  terms.  If  he  makes  any  positive  suggestion  as  to  the  child's 
mental  states,  he  will  say  that  if  there  is  any  consciousness  at 
first,  it  is  most  like,  yet  much  more  indefinite  than,  the  vague 
feelings,  almost  without  ideas,  that  are  sometimes  experienced 
by  adults  when  in  a  drowsy  state. 

The  child  sleeps  most  of  the  time  at  first,  and  is  probably 
conscious  of  only  the  more  intense  stimuli.  The  field  of  con- 
sciousness, soon  to  become  a  fairyland  of  new  experiences,  is  at 
first  a  half-formed,  barren  desert,  with  only  an  occasional  rock 
of  bodily  pain  or  oasis  of  comfort  clearly  discernible. 

Since  the  only  key  to  the  mind  of  the  young  child,  who  cannot 
speak  for  himself,  by  which  his  movements  may  be  interpreted, 
is  a  mental  state  like  his  own  at  the  time  of  making  the  move- 
ments, the  door  to  his  inner  mental  states  is  forever  closed  to 
adults.  To  us  every  sensation  has  a  meaning ;  it  is  related  to 
and  calls  up  sensations  like  it  or  associated  with  it  in  past  expe- 
rience. The  infant,  however,  has  no  such  past  experience  as  we 
have  and  even  when  its  movements  are  significant,  the  various 
sensations  are  not  related  to  each  other,  but  merely  each  to  its 
appropriate,  separate  reflex.  The  first  sound  heard  carries  with 
it  no  suggestion  of  sounds  of  its  class,  or  of  an  object  to  be  seen 
or  touched.  It  is  probably  only  a  more  vivid  something  in  the 
mild  chaos  of  organic  and  movement  sensations. 

The  child  is  at  first  simply  a  wonderful  mechanism  whose 
parts  are  not  all  finished  or  connected,  beginning  to  feel  and 
become  conscious  of  what  it  does.  It  is  distinctly  conscious  of 
only  the  more  intense  or  newer  things  that  it  does,  and  learns 
how  things  are  done  only  after  it  has  done  them  a  number  of 
times.     Consciousness  probably  has  no  influence  whatever  upon 


io8  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

action  for  several  months,  but  gives  merely  an  imperfect  report 
of  what  is  being  and  has  been  done  —  a  log  book  of  the  first 
voyage  of  the  vessel  of  life,  in  which  appear  only  the  regular 
food  watches  and  the  unusual  events  of  the  voyage. 

It  is  probable  that  there  is  very  little  unified  consciousness 
during  the  first  quarter ;  but  in  the  second  quarter,  when  move- 
ment becomes  more  complex,  so  that  the  stimulations  of  one 
sense  are  connected  with  those  of  another,  consciousness  probably 
becomes  unified  in  a  corresponding  degree,  and  every  experience 
becomes  associated  with  others  like  or  contiguous  to  it.  Every 
sensation  soon  has  a  background  of  general  bodily  sensation  and 
a  fringe  of  past  sensations.  As  consciousness  thus  becomes  uni- 
fied and  related,  it  begins  to  assume  its  rightful  place  as  general 
director  of  affairs,  and  chooses  that  certain  agieeable  experiences 
shall  be  continued  or  repeated,  and,  a  little  later,  exercises  some 
influence  in  determining  how  this  shall  be  done. 

Thus  does  the  semiconscious  and  utterly  helpless  being  acquire 
a  definite  and  unified  consciousness,  and  gradually  take  possession 
of  its  developing  self.  The  functioning  of  reflex  and  instinctive 
mechanisms  that  are  perfect  at  birth,  and  of  other  mechanisms 
after  they  become  perfect,  has  little  influence  on  the  conscious 
self.  The  processes  of  perfecting  mechanisms,  developing  them 
for  new  purposes,  and  combining  them  in  various  ways,  are  the 
chief  exciters  of  conscious  activity,  and  the  means  by  which  the 
mental  self  grows.  Every  new  experience  illuminates  and  en- 
larges the  field  of  consciousness,  and  extends  the  control  of  the 
growing  self. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  VOLUNTARY  CONTROL 

In  the  acquisition  of  voluntary  control  over  various  portions 
of  the  body  there  are  most  interesting  combinations  of  motor 
and  mental  processes.  To  understand  them  we  must  consider 
the  ends  gained  by  movements,  both  objectively  and  subjectively. 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HUMAN  INFANT     109 

Many,  but  not  all,  reflex  and  instinctive  movements  accomplish 
definite  ends,  while  spontaneous  and  random  movements  occa- 
sionally do  so.  Every  voluntary  movement  must  have  a  pur- 
pose; but  the  fact  that  some  objective  end  is  gained  does  not 
make  it  voluntary.  To  be  voluntary  there  must  be  some  idea  of 
the  end  previous  to  the  act  by  which  it  is  gained.  In  complex 
volitions  there  is  consciousness  of  several  ends,  or  several  means 
of  attaining  ends,  and  a  choice  as  to  which  shall  be  secured  or 
used. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  voluntary  efforts  can  be  made 
only  after  considerable  experience  in  non-voluntary  movements, 
which  gives  a  basis  for  forecasting  the  possible  and  probable 
results  of  movements  in  response  to  familiar  stimuli.  The  mus- 
cular and  nervous  mechanism  is,  in  part,  the  same,  whether  a 
motion  is  voluntary  or  involuntary ;  but  in  one  case  the  results 
are  anticipated  and  perhaps  chosen  from  among  several  possibili- 
ties, while  in  the  other  they  are  not.  Whether  will  is  an  actual 
force  in  consciousness  or  only  the  resultant  of  the  various  tend- 
encies to  action,  it  is  at  any  rate  a  new  state  of  consciousness,  and 
an  utterly  impossible  one  to  a  young  child  whose  motions  consist 
only  of  separate  random  and  reflex  movements. 

The  first  anticipation  of  the  results  of  movements  probably 
arises  in  connection  with  movements  of  the  head  in  search  of  the 
nipple,  and  the  next,  in  turning  the  eyes  toward  a  moving  object 
or  an  object  in  peripheral  vision.  Such  movements,  however, 
do  not  lead  directly  to  the  more  complex  acts  of  voluntary  con- 
trol, as  do  those  of  the  Hmbs.  They  are  so  simple  and  reflex  in  t 
character  that  unless  the  process  is  interfered  with  or  delayed, ' 
there  is  little  consciousness  of  any  kind,  and  certainly  no 
choice  of  movement  or  of  end.  The  hand,  however,  can  move  in 
so  many  ways,  each  differing  in  character  and  diflSculty,  and  for 
so  many  different  ends,  that  consciousness  of  hand  movements 
readily    becomes    intense,    anticipatory,    directive,    effortful, 


no  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

selective,  and  hence  voluntary.  The  acquiring  of  voluntary 
control  of  the  hand  is  therefore  a  good  type  of  all  voHtional 
progress.  The  way  in  which  this  takes  place  may  best  be  indi- 
cated by  notes  on  how  the  author's  own  little  girl  learned  to 
grasp  objects. 

^'Sixty-first  day,  noticed  her  own  hand  and  looked  at  it  for  a 
number  of  seconds.  Seventy-third  day,  put  hand  in  her  mother's 
mouth  several  times,  her  eyes  being  fixed  on  her  mother's  face, 
and  her  other  hand  nearly  still.  Her  hand  often  went  higher  or 
lower  or  to  one  side,  but  the  movement  was  successful  and  seemed 
to  be  called  forth  by  the  object  in  that  position.  Eighty-first 
day,  held  a  book  placed  in  her  hands  and  looked  at  it  for  some 
time.  One  hundred  and  eleventh  day,  movements  of  scratching 
and  pulling  at  things  her  hands  touched  became  frequent,  and 
there  were  some  instances  of  reaching  toward  and  scratching 
at  objects,  such  as  a  magazine  held  before  her.  Also  scratched 
at  tablecloth  and  at  a  plate,  and  when  her  hand  slipped  off  and 
came  to  her  mouth,  she  uttered  a  dissatisfied  grunt  as  if  dis- 
appointed in  not  getting  what  she  expected  in  the  way  of  tactile 
sensation  on  the  Hps. 

"When  lying  on  a  lounge,  has  often  got  her  hand  against  a 
curtain,  grasped  and  shaken  it  back  and  forth  for  a  long  time. 
One  hundred  and  twelfth  day,  got  her  fingers  caught  in  a  ribbon 
tied  around  the  curtain  and  jerked  at  it  till  it  came  loose,  and 
finally  got  it  in  her  mouth.  Later  in  the  day  drew  her  father's 
thumb  into  her  mouth.  He  removed  it,  and  she  succeeded 
several  times  in  getting  hold  of  it  and  bringing  it  to  her  mouth. 
When  not  successful,  gave  a  fretful  cry,  but  renewed  the  effort. 
Sometimes  her  hand  slipped  over  the  thumb  and  came  into  her 
mouth,  and  she  seemed  disappointed  and  tried  again.  This 
seemed  like  a  clear  case  of  voluntary  movement,  though  of  the 
simplest  kind,  since  there  was  probably  a  representation  of  the 
end  to  produce  expectation  of  a  certain  tactile  sensation  and 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HUMAN  INFANT     iii 

cause  signs  of  disappointment  and  renewed  effort  when  she  got 
a  different  sensation. 

"One  hundred  and  thirteenth  day,  repeatedly  put  her  father's 
finger  in  her  mouth,  having  no  difficulty  in  doing  so  after  she  got 
hold  of  it.  She  was  not,  however,  always  successful  in  getting 
hold  of  it,  sometimes  one  or  two  fingers  clasped  it  and  sometimes 
all  slipped  past.  One  hundred  and  fourteenth  day,  reached  the 
finger  several  times  without  trying  to  put  it  in  her  mouth.  One 
hundred  and  nineteenth  day,  carried  watch  to  her  mouth  a  number 
of  times,  used  both  hands  most  of  the  time,  sometimes  merely 
getting  them  behind  the  watch  and  pushing  it,  at  other  times 
clasping  it  with  one  or  more  fingers.  The  arms  are  controlled, 
but  the  fingers  show  Httle  more  than  the  original  reflex.  Head 
usually  moved  toward  objects  before  and  while  reaching  for  them. 

"One  hundred  and  twenty-ninth  day,  control  of  fingers  not 
perceptibly  better.  She  uses  both  hands  when  object  is  directly 
in  front,  and  the  nearest  hand  when  it  is  on  one  side.  Reached 
for  watch  four  or  five  inches  beyond  reach,  but  not  as  certain  to 
try  as  when  closer.  Slipped  her  fingers  along  her  mother's 
when  her  own  instead  of  her  mother's  fingers  touched  her  lips. 
This  may  have  been  accidentally  successful,  but  it  showed  dis- 
satisfaction is  not  getting  the  desired  sensation.  One  hundred 
and  thirty-second  day,  seemed  to  be  reaching  behind  the  mirror 
for  the  face.  One  hundred  and  thirty-fourth  day,  can  move  her 
hands  with  considerable  accuracy  and  rapidity  within  a  small 
space  directly  in  front  of  her,  and  in  that  space  generally  uses  both 
hands.  When  the  object  is  on  one  side,  she  generally  uses  the 
hand  on  that  side.  Has  little  control  in  reaching  up  high  or 
down  low. 

"One  hundred  and  fifty-first  day,  tried  to  grasp  nearly  every- 
thing within  reach,  and  seems  to  be  more  accurate  when  she  does 
it  very  quickly  than  when  she  reaches  slowly.  One  hundred  and 
fifty-third  day,  spent  some  time  in  catching  a  swinging  watch 


112  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

and  letting  it  go.  Reached  for  it  only  when  it  was  near,  and 
naturally  was  more  frequently  successful  when  it  was  swinging 
toward  her  than  when  it  was  swinging  out.  One  hundred  and 
sixty-eighth  day,  has  now  sufficient  control  of  her  movements 
so  that  toys  give  more  pleasure  than  vexation.  One  hundred 
and  seventy-first  day,  persistently  reached  for  a  red  bow,  though 
it  was  nearly  or  quite  hidden  from  view  part  of  the  time.  One 
hundred  and  seventy-fifth  day,  does  not  keep  things  in  her  mouth 
so  much,  and  apparently  shakes  the  rattle  not  simply  for  the 
movement,  but  also  for  the  sound,  though  this  is  not  certain. 
Often  grasps  things  very  quickly. 

*'0«g  hundred  and  eighty-second  day,  can  now  grasp  and  hold 
in  one  hand  a  ball  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter.  Two  hundred 
and  second  day,  has  been  able  to  take  a  handkerchief  off  her  head 
for  some  time,  and  to-day  succeeded  a  number  of  times  in  taking 
a  stiff  hat  off  her  head,  having  difficulty  only  when  she  took  hold 
too  far  forward  and  pulled  it  against  the  back  of  her  head  before 
getting  it  high  enough.  Two  hundred  and  thirteenth  day,  if  any- 
thing is  held  just  out  of  reach  in  front  or  over  her  head,  she  will 
try  one  hand  awhile,  then  the  other,  then  give  a  discontented  cry 
and  try  again.  Two  hundred  and  fourteenth  day,  took  hold  of 
her  father's  mustache  and  drew  his  mouth  down  to  hers,  but 
drew  back  when  she  felt  the  prick  of  the  mustache.  This  was 
repeated  several  times,  but  the  last  time  she  did  not  bring  his 
mouth  down  quite  close  to  hers.  Two  hundred  and  fifteenth  day, 
pulled  her  father's  mouth  down  toward  hers,  but  not  closer 
than  three  inches. 

^^Two  hundred  and  seventeenth  day,  looked  intently  at  a  bell 
as  she  struck  it  repeatedly,  evidently  associating  sight,  sound, 
and  motion.  Two  hundred  and  thirty-fourth  day,  reached  with 
one  hand,  then  the  other,  a  dozen  times  for  toys  held  just  up  out 
of  reach  before  stopping  to  protest  angrily.  Two  hundred  and 
thirty-sixth  day,  reached  for  tassels  on  her  carriage,  when  she 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   HUMAN  INFANT     113 

could  not  see  them,  and  sometimes  cried  when  some  one  approached 
to  remove  them  as  had  been  done  before." 

Summing  up  these  facts,  it  is  clear  that  in  obtaining  voluntary 
control  of  the  hand  in  grasping,  various  non-volimtary  move- 
ments are  grouped  together  and  repeated  until  they  can  readily 
be  continued  in  various  ways.  These  combinations  are  produced 
at  first  in  response  to  the  stimulus  of  some  object  which  calls 
forth  various  movements,  one  of  which  has  desirable  results. 
At  first  the  effective  stimulus  is  some  visual  object  and  the  desired 
result  a  tactile  sensation  on  the  lips.  Soon  representation  of  the 
result  is  sufiiciently  clear  to  produce  disappointment  when  it  is 
not  obtained,  and  the  attempt  is  repeated.  The  act  then  has  the 
essential  characteristics  of  a  voluntary  movement.  This  usually 
occurs  between  four  and  five  months,  while  a  month  or  two  later 
there  is  shown  the  more  complex  voluntary  state  of  representing 
the  exciting  stimulus,  as  well  as  the  end  to  be  secured,  as  when 
the  child  reaches  for  what  is  not  in  sight.  At  about  the  same 
time  the  end  to  be  gained  is  often  changed  to  tactile  sensations 
on  the  hand  instead  of  on  the  lips,  or  to  muscular  sensations  as  the 
hand  is  moved,  or  auditory  sensations  as  the  object  is  made  to 
strike  something  else.  When  a  movement  is  stopped  because  the 
consequence  has  proved  disagreeable  (as  when  the  mustache 
was  brought  to  the  lips) ,  we  have  a  further  complication  of  move- 
ment being  checked  by  the  idea  of  undesirable  consequences. 

The  muscles  of  the  limbs  first  brought  under  control  are  the 
larger  ones  of  the  whole  arm,  while  the  space  in  which  control 
is  first  exercised  is  directly  in  front  and  near  the  level  of  the 
mouth. 

Other  movements  than  those  of  the  hand  come  under  voluntary 
control  in  a  similar  way ;  first  the  eyes  and  head  in  turning  toward 
sights  and  sounds,  then  the  body  in  sitting,  then  the  hands  in 
grasping,  and  finally,  near  the  close  of  the  first  year,  the  legs  in 
creeping,  standing,  and  walking,  and  the  vocal  organs  in  repeating 


114  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

sounds.  The  first  of  these  is  so  largely  provided  for  by  inherited 
mechanisms  that  the  movements  soon  come  under  the  possible 
control  of  consciousness,  while  the  last  involves  the  coordination 
of  so  many  simpler  non-voluntary  movements  that  the  whole 
series  is  often  looked  upon  as  acquired  by  experience. 

A  careful  study  of  this  early  development  of  control  of  the  hand 
and  of  other  parts  of  the  body  shows  it  to  be  general  as  well  as 
special.  Not  only  does  the  child  learn  to  make  specific  move- 
ments in  getting  specific  objects  in  a  certain  position  but  he 
gains  the  power  to  adapt  the  movements  of  the  hand  and  of 
other  parts  of  the  body  to  new  objects  in  any  position.  Any 
significant  variation  in  the  visual  sensation  of  the  position  of 
the  object  results  in  a  similar  variation  in  the  movements  of  the 
hand  in  getting  it.  This  relation  may  be  specific,  but  its  effect 
gives  at  least  the  appearance  of  general  free  control  of  hand  move- 
ments. There  is  reason  to  believe  that  this  relation  between 
visual  spatial  sensations  and  movements  of  the  limbs  is  not  wholly 
acquired,  but  partly  native  or  instinctive.  In  young  chickens, 
colts,  and  calves  the  power  to  touch  or  avoid  objects  seen  in  a 
certain  position  is  well  developed  soon  after  birth.  In  children 
it  develops  more  slowly,  but  there  is  clear  evidence  that  movement 
toward  an  attractive  object  is  partially  instinctive  and  not  wholly 
acquired. 

Since  right-handedness  and  left-handedness  appear  in  some 
instances  to  be  clearly  hereditary,  there  must  also  be  some  heredi- 
tary relation  between  visual  sensations  and  hand  movements. 
It  is  claimed  by  some  that  left-handedness  is  really  left-eyedness. 
However  this  may  be,  there  must  be  some  kind  of  inherited 
relation  between  visual  sensations  of  space  relations  and  move- 
ments in  space.  If  this  is  true  by  heredity,  much  more  is  it  true 
of  the  species  that  there  are  native  relations  between  visual 
sensations  and  certain  muscle  groups.  The  same  is  probably 
the  case  as  regards  auditory  sensations  and  the  movements  of 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HUMAN  INFANT    115 

the  vocal  organs.  These  relations,  native  and  acquired,  greatly 
facilitate  imitation  and  the  learning  of  new  movements.  By 
directing  the  eye  and  the  attention  properly,  we  learn  to  guide 
a  bicycle,  draw  a  picture,  or  hit  a  ball. 

Most  children  are  probably  only  slightly  right-handed  or  left- 
handed  and  may  learn  to  be  either  or  both;  but  a  few  are  so 
definitely  of  one  or  the  other  type  that  the  attempt  to  change  them 
results  unfortunately.  In  general  it  is  more  convenient  to  be 
right-handed ;  hence,  only  when  the  tendency  to  lef  t-handedness 
is  strong  should  the  child  be  allowed  to  develop  in  that  way. 
Where  the  left-handed  tendency  is  very  strong,  attempts  to 
change  often  result  in  permanent  awkwardness  and  sometimes, 
it  is  claimed,  in  mental  retardation  and  confusion.  Ambidex- 
terity is  sometimes  wisely  developed  by  some  individuals. 

LEARNING  TO  WALK 

The  tendency  to  locomotion,  though  primarily  developed 
in  the  race  as  a  means  of  nutrition  and  escape,  is  fostered  in  the 
individual  child  more  by  the  instinct  of  curiosity  or  the  desire 
for  the  sensations  to  be  obtained  by  coming  in  contact  with 
various  objects,  than  by  the  desire  for  food  and  escape. 

The  fact  that  children  are  a  long  while  learning  to  walk,  and 
that  various  movements  such  as  rolling,  crawling  on  stomach, 
or  on  hands  and  feet,  hitching  along  in  some  form  of  sitting 
position,  pushing  one's  self  backward,  or  rapid  running  from 
one  support  to  another,  may  be  used  as  means  of  approaching 
objects,  before  the  child  attempts  ordinary  walking,  seems  to 
indicate  that  there  is  in  human  beings  no  instinctive  mechanism 
for  walking  as  there  is  in  the  case  of  chickens  or  pigs,  which  can 
walk  almost  perfectly  from  the  first. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  that  the  walking  reflex  (the  tend- 
ency to  move  one  foot  forward  when  the  other  touches  the  floor, 
develops  in  the  first  or  second  quarter,  and  that  the  rudimentary 


ii6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

tendency  to  maintain  equilibrium  appears  even  earlier,  shows 
that  part  of  the  mechanism  of  walking  is  in  working  order  at 
an  early  date.  Walking  becomes  possible  when  its  reflex  ele- 
ments can  be  properly  combined.  Such  an  instance  as  the 
following  shows  that  the  whole  mechanism  for  walking  may  be 
developed  and  its  parts  connected  without  experience,  and  that 
consciousness  may  hinder  rather  than  help,  all  of  which  indicates 
that  walking  in  children  is  more  instinctive  than  is  usually  sup- 
posed. 

The  instance  is  thus  described  by  the  father,  Superintendent 
Hall,  of  North  Adams,  Mass. 

"In  reply  to  yours  of  March  25th,  I  give  you  the  following 
accoimt  of  how  my  Uttle  daughter  Katherine  learned  to  walk. 
She  was  the  youngest  of  a  family  of  five.  The  other  children 
had  learned  to  walk  soon  after  they  were  a  year  old,  and  in  the 
normal  fashion  —  by  being  encouraged  to  put  forth  a  series  of 
efforts  until  they  were  able  to  go  alone.  Katherine  was  a  normal 
child  in  other  respects,  bright,  active,  and  healthy,  yet  imable 
to  walk  a  step  when  she  was  seventeen  months  old.  Of  course 
we  were  anxious,  fearing  the  cause  of  this  inefficiency  might  be 
physical,  especially  as  she  persisted  in  crawling  and  absolutely 
refused  to  try  to  help  herself  under  the  encouragement  of  any 
assistance. 

"At  last  we  referred  the  matter  to  a  physician,  who  said :  'It 
is  a  peculiar  case,  and  I  can  hardly  tell  whether  the  difficulty  is 
physical  or  mental.  If  there  is  no  improvement  in  a  short  time, 
call  me  again.'  Shortly  afterward  I  came  home  one  day  at  noon, 
and  placing  my  cuffs  on  a  table  in  the  sitting  room  threw  myself 
on  a  loimge  to  rest.  Katherine  happened  to  notice  the  cuffs 
from  where  she  sat  on  the  floor,  and  crawling  across  the  room 
pulled  herself  up  by  one  leg  of  the  table,  and  reaching  out  with 
one  hand,  while  she  held  on  to  the  table  with  the  other,  took  a 
cuff  off  from  the  table  and  slipped  it  on  over  her  wrist.    Of  course 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HUMAN  INFANT     117 

to  do  this  she  had  to  stand  alone.  I  noticed  it  at  once  and  was 
surprised  when  she  reached  out  her  other  hand  for  the  other  cuff 
and  slipped  that  on,  and  then  stood  looking  in  a  very  interested 
way  at  the  cuffs  on  both  wrists.  Then,  to  our  great  surprise, 
she  turned  toward  me  with  a  very  pleased  expression  on  her  face 
and  walked  as  confidently  and  easily  as  any  child  could.  Not 
only  this,  but  she  immediately  ran  across  the  room,  through 
another  room,  and  around  through  the  hallway,  not  simply 
walking,  but  running  as  rapidly  as  a  child  four  or  five  years  of 
age  would.  What  surprised  us  most  was  that  she  did  not  seem 
to  be  wearied  by  her  effort  at  all. 

*' We  allowed  her  to  keep  the  cuffs  on  for  ten  minutes  or  more, 
and  she  was  on  her  feet  all  the  time.  At  last  she  sat  down  a 
moment,  rested,  and  then,  strange  to  say,  got  up  on  both  feet 
without  assistance,  and  commenced  to  run  around  the  room 
again.  As  an  experiment  I  took  the  cuffs  off,  and  she  was  as 
unwilling  to  try  to  walk  as  before.  We  could  not  possibly  induce 
her  to  take  a  single  step  without  the  cuffs.  When,  however,  we 
allowed  her  to  put  them  on,  she  seemed  to  be  greatly  delighted  and 
walked  and  ran  as  before.  The  result  was  that  I  gave  her  an 
old  pair  of  cuffs  and  allowed  her  to  wear  them  for  two  days. 
This  was  the  only  way  we  could  keep  her  from  crawling.  After 
that  time  she  seemed  to  be  able  to  get  along  without  the  cuffs, 
and  has  not  crawled  any  since." 

Since  publishing  this  accoimt  many  similar  cases  have  been 
reported  to  the  author. 

Learning  to  walk  is  a  good  illustration  of  instincts  not  perfected 
at  birth  by  definite  connections  between  inner  conditions  and 
movements  of  special  muscles.  There  is  an  inner  impulse  to 
approach  attractive  objects  and  those  which  have  been  found  by 
experience  to  be  enjoyable,  and  this  impulse  results  in  a  variety 
of  movements  which,  according  to  circumstances  and  age,  cause 
the  child  to  move  toward  the  object  by  crawling,  creeping, 


Il8  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

rolling  over  and  over,  hitching  along,  or  walking.  A  child  who 
is  not  allowed  to  sit  or  lie  on  the  floor  between  the  ages  of  seven 
and  fourteen  months  is  not  likely  to  learn  to  creep.  Children 
who  learn  to  creep  do  not  continue  to  do  so,  but  later  walk  instead. 
The  combination  of  an  end  to  be  gained  by  moving  the  whole 
body,  with  instinctive  movements  of  various  kinds  combined 
in  various  ways  by  the  more  or  less  chance  conditions  of  position 
of  the  child's  body  and  limbs  and  the  direction  of  the  attractive 
object,  result  at  one  age  in  one  kind  of  locomotion,  and  at  another 
in  a  different  one.  The  mode  of  locomotion  fittest  for  the  time 
being  continues  until  a  more  suitable  one  develops.  Walking 
is  usually  later  in  developing  than  creeping,  because  it  is  possible 
only  after  more  of  the  sensory  and  motor  apparatus  concerned 
have  matured  and  become  connected  in  the  right  way.  Just 
how  much  the  maturing  of  nerve  and  muscle  apparatus  is  in- 
dependent of  exercise  and  how  much  dependent  upon  it  we  do  not 
know.  Neither  do  we  know  to  what  extent  the  tendency  to  the 
right  combination  of  the  various  parts  necessary  to  walking  is 
the  result  of  learning  by  chance  experiences. 

RELATION  OF  INSTINCTS   TO   MENTAL  ACTIVITIES 

The  chief  difference  between  a  man  and  a  photographic  plate 
is  that  man  has  active  instincts  which  impel  him  to  do  some- 
thing else  besides  receive  and  reproduce  impressions.  Of  course 
he  responds  to  a  much  greater  variety  of  stimuli  than  does  any 
other  creature ;  but  the  chief  point  is  that  he  is  not  passive,  but 
reaches  out  into  the  world  for  stimuli  and  responds  to  them  in 
many  self-determinate  ways. 

A  child  not  only  registers  the  existence  of  food  when  it  appears 
before  him  as  would  a  photographic  plate,  but  the  feeding  instinct 
impels  him  to  seek  food  and  to  take  it;  while  the  instincts  of 
curiosity  and  of  fear  impel  him  to  examine  new  objects  closely 
before  touching  them.    If  another  child  seizes  the  food,  the  in- 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   HUMAN  INFANT     119 

stinct  of  anger  may  impel  the  first  one  to  attack  the  offender,  but 
the  instinct  of  fear  or  the  desire  for  his  mother's  approbation  may 
restrain  him.  If  the  child  is  not  hungry  and  is  good  natured, 
the  play  impulse  may  in  a  similar  instance  cause  him  to  engage 
in  a  friendly  tussle  and  chase  to  secure  what  neither  of  them  cares 
particularly  for  except  as  an  object  of  competition.  Thus  do 
instincts  impel  to  action  without  always  providing  the  specific 
apparatus  for  a  definite  form  of  movement  suited  to  satisfying 
the  impulse.  In  man  the  external  movements  are  less  definitely 
provided  for  than  in  animals  and  the  instinctive  impulse  in  him 
often  leads  to  feelings  and  ideas  followed  by  movements  remotely 
connected  with  the  original  instinctive  impulse. 

The  chief  differences  in  a  human  being  at  different  stages  of 
development  are  due  not  merely  to  experience,  but  to  various 
instincts  which  are  present  or  prominent  at  different  periods  of 
life. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  impulsive  movements  are  the  basis 
of  voluntary  control,  since  by  no  possibility  can  the  mind  know 
how  to  make  a  motion  or  what  will  be  the  result  until  the  motion 
has  been  made  and  the  result  experienced.  The  different  ways 
in  which  a  child  responds  to  the  various  stimuli  that  he  receives 
are  important  means  of  distinguishing  one  sensation  from  an- 
other, and  the  chief  means  of  associating  them  in  certain  ways ; 
hence,  our  intellectual  life  is  based  ultimately  upon  our  reflex 
and  instinctive  movements.  The  emotions  of  a  child  also  depend 
upon  the  ways  in  which  he  reacts  to  various  objects,  the  modes  of 
expression  used,  and  the  internal  bodily  changes  that  occur.  His 
emotions  are  therefore  largely  the  consciousness  of  his  own  re- 
actions to  his  surroundings.  It  is  just  as  impossible  to  experience 
an  emotion  previous  to  its  corresponding  instinctive  impulse 
as  it  is  to  voluntarily  make  a  particular  movement  that  has  never 
before  been  made.  Nothing  surprises  us  so  much  as  new  emo- 
tions that  suddenly  come  into  our  lives,  as  novelists  have  often 


I20  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

shown  in  one  sphere  of  instinctive  development.  The  silking 
of  growing  corn  is  not  more  entirely  determined  by  the  laws  of 
organic  development  than  is  the  emotion  of  love  in  the  youth, 
by  the  emergence  of  a  new  instinct  from  the  depths  of  his  un- 
conscious nature. 

In  the  higher  forms  of  action,  involving  not  merely  control  of 
movement  but  complex  ideas  and  feelings,  emotions  seem  to  be  the 
conscious  determinants  of  action.  Instinct  and  habits,  however, 
really  determine  what  feeUngs  shall  be  experienced  under  present 
conditions  and  render  possible  the  picturing  of  the  feelings  which 
may  be  experienced  through  proposed  actions. 

Intellectual  activity  is  excited  by  curiosity  and  made  promi- 
nent in  finding  the  means  of  securing  the  satisfaction  of  desires. 
Our  whole  mental  life,  intellectual,  emotional,  and  volitional, 
is  developed  in  connection  with  instinctive  action.  All  activities 
of  the  conscious  Ufe  have  for  their  root  unconscious,  blind,  in- 
stinctive tendencies. 

In  our  further  study  of  instincts  and  their  development,  there- 
fore, we  are  really  studying  the  fundamental  yet  unrecognized 
basis  of  all  emotional,  intellectual,  and  volitional  development. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Report  observations  or  printed  records  of  the  early  reflex  and  instinc- 
tive movements  of  infants. 

2.  Describe  instances  of  an  infant  of  less  than  a  year  using  many  parts 
of  the  body  in  a  coordinate  way  for  a  single  end. 

3.  Mention  several  specific  movements  of  an  infant  less  than  six  months 
old,  and  give  reasons  for  thinking  them  either  unconscious,  conscious,  or 
voluntary. 

4.  Report  early  instances  of  voUtion  observed  by  yourself  or  found  in 
reading. 

5.  Report  from  observation,  hearsay,  or  reading  as  fully  as  you  can  how 
one  child  learned  to  walk. 

6.  Report  from  observation  or  reading  instances  of  animals  learning  by 
the  "  trial  and  success  method." 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HUMAN  INFANT    121 

7.  Give  illustrations  of  the  three  methods  of  learning  in  the  case  of  persons. 
Name  two  or  three  things  that  may  best  be  learned  by  the  "  trial  and  suc- 
cess method,"  by  the  "  imitation  method,"  and  by  the  "  method  of  under- 
standing," mdicating  in  each  case  whether  the  age  of  the  person  makes  any 
difference  as  to  the  prominence  of  the  preferred  method. 

8.  By  which  method  should  children  learn  to  sing? 

9.  May  we  expect  a  child  to  know  how  to  control  a  new  feeling?    Why? 

10.  Should  we  strive  to  control  a  child's  actions  by  his  feelings  or  his 
feelings  by  his  actions?    Why? 

11.  Is  it  better  to  do  a  kind  act  for  a  child  or  let  him  do  one  for  you? 
Why? 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  general  subject  of  infant  development,  read  Preyer,  Moore,  Shinn, 
Tracy,  Compayre,  Vol.  I,  and  the  following  articles :  G.  S.  Hall,  Ped. 
Sem.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  127-138 ;  Mrs.  W.  S.  HaU,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  330- 
342,  458-473,  522-537,  586-608;  Darwin,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LVII, 
pp.  197-205. 

On  the  development  of  volimtary  control  and  learning  to  walk,  see  Spence, 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  444;  Kirkpatrick,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  VI, 
pp.  275-281 ;  Baldwin,  Science,  Vol.  XVII,  O.  S.,  p.  113,  or  Pop.  Sci. 
Mo.,  Vol.  XLIV,  p.  606,  and  Science,  Vol.  XX,  O.  S.,  p.  286,  or  Mental 
Development,  Vol.  I,  pp.  47-103, 367-430 ;  Dexter,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XXIII, 
pp.  81-91 ;  Judd,  Genetic  Psychology,  chap,  vi ;  Trettein,  Am.  Jr.  Psych., 
Vol.  XII,  pp.  1-57 ;  Compayre,  Vol.  II,  chap.  iv. 

On  relation  of  instincts  and  emotions,  see  James,  Psychology,  chapter  on 
"  Emotions,"  and  Ribot,  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,  chap,  vii ;  Baldwin, 
Vol,  II,  pp.  185-220. 

Later  References 

Books 

Dearborn,  G.  V.  N. 

Fitz 

King  (i) 

Major 

Peterson 

Sandiford 

Tanner 


122  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Articles 

Dresslar,  F.  B.    A  Morning's  ObserN^ation  of  a  Baby.    Fed.  Sem.,  Dec. 

1901,  Vol.  8,  pp.  469-481. 
HaJl,  G.  S.    Notes  on  the  Study  of  Infants.    Fed.  Sem.,  1891,  Vol.  i,  pp. 

127-138. 
Hall,  G.  S.    What  We  Owe  to  the  Tree  Life  of  Our  Ape-like  .\ncestore. 

Fed.  Sem.,  1916,  Vol.  23,  pp.  04-110. 
Mead,  Cjrrus  D.    The  Age  of  Walking  and  Talking  in  Relation  to  General 

Intelligence.    Fed.  Sem.,  1913,  Vol.  20,  pp.  460-484. 


CHAPTER  Vn 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUALISTIC  INSTINCT 

STRENGTH   OF  THE  INSTINCT 

The  usages  of  polite  society  all  tend  to  suppress  and  cover  up 
this  instinct,  but  it  remains  as  a  p)owerful  underlying  force, 
directing  the  feelings,  thoughts,  and  actions  of  men  and  women. 
In  times  of  excitement  it  bursts  into  view  in  a  most  surprising 
way.  In  a  moment,  a  company  of  courteous  ladies  and  gentle- 
men, apparently  intent  only  on  giving  each  other  pleasure,  may 
be  transformed  into  a  pack  of  wild  beasts,  struggling  and  tram- 
pUng  under  foot  their  helpless  companions  in  the  effort  to  escape 
from  a  burning  building. 

Even  when  reflective  consciousness  has  attained  to  the  view 
that  Ufe  is  not  worth  Hving,  and  decides  upon  suicide,  a  sudden 
change  in  conditions  will  arouse  the  aU-powerful  instinct  to  Uve, 
and  the  individual  then  struggles  for  life  as  frantically  as  if  it 
were  the  most  desirable  of  all  things.  For  example,  a  French- 
man who  was  on  his  way  to  drown  himself,  promptly  climbed  a 
lamp  post  and  clung  to  it  with  desperate  energy  when  death  ap- 
peared in  the  form  of  a  tiger  escaped  from  his  cage.  In  a  similar 
way,  a  young  lady  wading  into  Lake  Michigan  to  drown  herself 
avoided  destruction  by  running  to  shore  when  threatened  with 
being  shot  if  she  did  not  do  so.  Each  had  suppressed  in  one 
form  only  the  instinctive  tendency  to  avoid  death,  hence  sudden 
impending  destruction  in  another  form  produced  the  usual  in- 
stinctive reaction. 

So  strong  is  the  self -preservative  instinct  that  few  sane  persons 

123 


124  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

commit  suicide.  It  is  also  ven^  difficult  for  any  one  to  volun- 
tarily injure  himself.  Considerable  determination  is  necessary 
to  prick  one's  own  finger  in  order  to  get  blood  for  examination 
under  a  microscope.  It  is  also  almost  impossible  to  refrain  from 
instinctive  movements  when  injury  seems  to  be  threatened. 
The  man  who  offered  a  prize  to  any  one  who  would  hold  his 
fingor  against  a  glass  without  flinching,  while  a  rattlesnake 
strudL  at  it  from  the  other  side,  was  quite  safe  in  doing  so.  In 
all  sudden  emergencies,  where  blind  instinct  rather  than  reason 
controls,  action  is  nearly  always  governed  by  the  indi\-idualistic 
instinct 

In  deliberate  action  other  instincts  may  tempvorarily  attain 
ascendency  in  consciousness,  yet  none  of  them,  as  a  rule,  main- 
tain their  prominence  for  long  periods  of  time.  Many  coopera- 
tive and  communistic  experiments  have  failed  because  they  were 
opposed  to  the  all-powerful  individualistic  instincts.  Cooperative 
institutions,  which  app>eal  to  other  instincts  and  to  the  individual- 
istic also  without  opposing  the  one  to  the  other,  are,  on  the  other 
hand,  grand  successes. 

PSOIONENCE  IN  THE  YOUNG 

The  instinct  of  self-preservation  is  not  only  the  oldest  instinct, 
but  one  that  has  been  most  xmiformly  useful  to  all  species  from 
the  earliest  beginnings  of  animal  life ;  hence,  we  should  expect 
it  to  be  strong  in  the  young  child.  There  is,  however,  a  still 
more  important  reason  for  expecting  it  to  be  strong  in  the  young 
of  all  animals,  including  man,  viz.,  because  it  is  the  only  instinct 
that  can  be  of  much  use  in  this  stage  of  early  helplessness.  Any 
tendency  on  the  part  of  a  young  animal  or  child  to  act  for  the 
good  of  any  other  being  than  itself  would  be  futile,  and  in  many 
cases  injurious  to  itself  and  indirectiy  to  its  species ;  hence,  the 
individualistic  instinct  mttsi  be  dominant  in  the  young  of  all 
^>ecies  which  survive. 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    INDIVIDUALISTIC    INSTINCT     125 

The  dominance  of  this  instinct  in  the  child  is  due,  not  so  much 
to  its  greater  absolute  intensity  in  childhood  as  to  the  fact  that 
he  has  at  first  neither  the  power  nor  the  tendency  to  use  any 
other  instinct.  When  older,  other  instincts  develop  in  a  form 
which  leads  to  action  for  the  good  of  others.  The  individual- 
istic instinct  is  then  less  prominent  because  it  is  no  longer  the 
only  source  of  action.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  the 
individualistic  tendency  is  really  decreased  very  much  in  adults, 
though  its  influence  is  partially  counteracted  by  other  instincts 
and  by  training. 

The  young  child  needs  not  so  much  to  act  for  his  own  good,  as 
to  act  so  as  to  make  his  necessities  and  desires  known  to  his 
parents;  hence  the  instinctive  and  acquired  powers  of  expres- 
sion are  made  to  take  the  place  of  self-care.  Activity  in  forcing 
his  wants  upon  the  attention  of  adults  is  often  more  helpful  to 
him  in  securing  the  means  of  subsistence,  safety,  and  develop- 
ment than  activity  on  his  own  account  in  trying  to  get  them. 
The  child,  therefore,  naturally  becomes  a  persistent  beggar. 
He  not  only  makes  his  wants  known  and  forces  them  continually 
upon  the  attention  of  parents  till  his  desires  are  satisfied,  but 
often  seems  to  assume  command  over  his  elders  as  his  servants, 
and  to  demand  of  them  what  he  wants.  This  tendency  is  natural 
and  unmoral,  not  immoral ;  but  both  for  the  child's  own  good 
and  that  of  his  elders,  it  needs  to  be  kept  within  bounds  and 
directed.  Even  mother  birds,  cows,  and  dogs  find  it  necessary, 
as  their  little  ones  grow  up  and  become  able  to  care  for  them- 
selves, to  refuse  their  demands  and  perhaps  drive  them  away 
to  look  out  for  themselves.  In  a  similar  way  parents  should 
continue  to  do  things  for  a  child  only  so  long  as  he  is  unable  to 
do  them  for  himself.  Even  before  that,  social  training  should 
be  begun  by  requiring  him  to  indicate  his  wants  quietly  and 
politely. 

One  of  the  most  common  and  serious  errors  of  parents  is  to 


126  FUNDAMENT.\LS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

extend  and  prolong  their  protective  care  to  such  an  extent  that 
children  have  little  chance  to  learn  the  nature  of  the  world  in 
which  they  live.  Children  are  saved  from  educative  bumps 
and  deprived  of  the  opportunity  of  getting  out  of  simple  diffi- 
culties. 

DEVELOPMEin'  OF  INDIVIDUALISTIC  INSTINCTS   INTO  MOTIVES 

The  individualistic  instincts,  like  all  others,  are  at  first  blind. 
All  the  child's  early  movements  are  for  his  own  well-being ;  hence, 
the  ideas,  emotions,  and  volitions  that  develop  from  these  move- 
ments are  concerned  with  obtaining  desirable  things  for  self, 
though  he  has,  as  yet,  no  clear  idea  of  self. 

In  the  second  and  third  year,  when  the  adaptive  instincts 
and  the  lower  forms  of  the  social  instinct  are  very  prominent, 
and  the  self  is  only  partially  distinguished  in  consciousness  from 
others,  whose  acts  and  mental  states  are  so  frequently  reflected 
in  the  child  himself,  action  is  less  directly  indi\iduaHstic.  The 
child  does  and  feels  as  others  around  him,  and  sometimes  seems 
equally  well  pleased  whether  he  or  some  one  else  gets  or  does  a 
thing,  though  in  other  instances  he  is  very  strenuous  about  being 
the  one  to  do,  taste,  see,  etc. 

In  the  fourth  and  fifth  years,  when  the  child  has  become  more 
of  a  self-conscious  being,  he  looks  ahead  to  the  favorable  or  un- 
favorable results  of  actions,  and  recognizes  the  fact  that  favor- 
able results  to  another  often  mean  that  they  shall  not  come  to 
him.  The  charming  appearance  of  unselfishness  in  desiring 
others  to  eat,  see,  hear,  etc.,  then  often  disappears,  and  he,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  tries  to  get  all  good  things  for  himself.  Reflex 
sympathy  and  the  desire  for  approval  influence  his  motives  and 
actions  to  a  considerable  extent;  but  often  he  tends  to  choose 
consciously  that  which  will  bring  pleasure  to  himself,  regardless 
of  how  it  will  af!ect  others.  Sometimes  he  schemes  to  both 
gratify  selfish  impulses  and  to  secure  social  approval,  as  did  a 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    INDIVIDUALISTIC    INSTINCT     127 

little  girl  who  had  been  taught  to  take  the  smaller  piece,  when 
she  insisted  on  giving  her  brother  his  choice  of  two  parts  of  an 
apple,  instead  of  taking  her  choice  first. 

By  example  and  special  training,  however,  the  social  instinct  of 
sympathy  and  desire  for  approbation  may  be  made  dominant, 
but  politeness  secured  by  punishment  is  likely  to  be  superficial. 

In  general,  the  question  which  the  child  naturally  asks  con- 
cerning objects  and  persons  is,  "What  are  they  good  for?"  mean- 
ing by  "good,"  "  What  can  I  get  out  of  them  ? "  He  is  the  center 
of  the  universe,  and  everything  and  everybody  is  for  his  pleasure. 
Persons,  as  well  as  things,  are  valued  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  satisfaction  he  can  get  from  them. 

The  first  few  years  of  school  life  are  preeminently  the  period 
of  selfness  or  individualism.  The  child's  chief  motive  in  life  is 
to  get  everything  possible  for  himself,  —  objects,  sensations, 
knowledge,  privileges,  and  honors.  It  is  the  period  in  which 
individual  rivalry  is  least  checked  by  altruistic  impulses.  The 
interests  of  the  child's  family  and  special  friends  are  looked  after, 
largely  because  they  are  his.  The  prowess  of  a  big  brother,  or 
the  possessions  of  a  father,  or  the  goodness  of  a  friend  are  merely 
a  part  of  the  young  monarch's  treasures,  to  be  exhibited  to  those 
outside  of  his  dominion.  Their  interests  are  to  be  advanced  as 
a  means  of  self-enlargement.  If,  however,  their  advantage 
should  conflict  with  his,  they  at  once  become  of  secondary  im- 
portance. Every  new  acquisition  of  possessions,  friends,  knowl- 
edge, experience  and  power  is  enjoyed  as  an  enlargement  of  the 
kingdom  of  self. 

To  be  thoughtful  only  of  the  interests  of  others,  or  to  be  inter- 
ested in  anything  not  concerned  with  the  advancement  of  this 
kingdom  of  his,  would  be  alien  to  a  healthy,  normal  child.  He 
cares  as  little  for  things  outside  of  his  domain  as  did  the  people 
of  ancient  nations.  The  way  in  which  the  child  mind  relates 
everything  to  self  is  beautifully  shown  by  asking  children  to  give 


128  FUNDAMENT.\LS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

sentences  containing  such  common  words  as  cat,  house,  book, 
and  noticing  what  a  large  proportion  of  the  sentences  bring  self 
in  (e.g.  "My  cat  is  white,"  "My  uncle  has  a  bull  dog,"  "This  is 
my  book")  as  compared  with  corresponding  sentences  written 
by  older  children  or  adults. 

INDIVIDUALISM  THE   BASIS   OF  HIGHER  DEVELOPMENT 

The  extreme  egoism  or  selfness  of  a  child  from  six  to  ten  is 
not  to  be  deprecated  (though  it  may  need  some  mitigation),  for 
it  is  an  important  and  valuable  phase  of  development.  The 
usefulness  of  any  individual  depends  upon  what  he  is,  the  knowl- 
edge and  power  that  he  possesses,  and  the  use  he  makes  of  them. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  first  law  of  life  should  be  one 
impelling  to  self-enlargement  and  development.  If  the  law  of 
service  to  others  were  the  dominant  one  in  early  life,  there  would 
never  be  a  self  capable  of  efficient  service.  It  is  fortunate,  there- 
fore, that  no  training  can  entirely  suppress  or  overshadow  the 
individuahstic  instincts  in  early  life,  otherwise  many  children 
would  soon  be  so  good  they  would  be  good  for  nothing  as  men 
and  women. 

Modesty  is  undoubtedly  a  most  admirable  thing  in  a  man, 
especially  in  one  who  has  already  developed  a  great  personality, 
but  it  is  very  disadvantageous  in  a  child.  The  more  pride  and 
ambition  a  child  has,  so  long  as  it  is  connected  with  active  effort 
rather  than  passive  enjoyment,  the  better  for  his  future  develop- 
ment. If  praise  and  reward  prompt  to  fresh  effort  (within  the 
limits  of  his  strength),  a  child  can  scarcely  have  too  much  recog- 
nition of  his  achievements.  What  would  be  insufferable  egotism 
in  an  adult  is  perfectly  proper  in  the  child.  If  the  child  has  com- 
panions who  are  his  equals,  and  is  held  to  standards  of  attainment 
which  require  his  best  efforts,  he  may  be  freely  encouraged  in  the 
belief  that  he  is  accompHshing  wonders. 

Every  parent  and  teacher  should  frankly  recognize  that  the 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    INDIVIDUALISTIC    INSTINCT    I2g 

all-power  motive  to  the  child  is  gain  to  self.  The  gain  to 
self  should,  however,  take  the  more  refined  forms  of  securing  the 
approbation  of  others  or  of  demonstrating  his  power  to  do  things 
for  them;  but  it  must  contribute  in  some  way  to  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  child's  self,  in  the  minds  of  others  and  to  his  own 
consciousness. 

All  intelligent  training  is  based  in  part  upon  the  individualistic 
instinct.  If  it  is  good  training,  the  child  will  discover  that  he 
gets  more  for  himself  in  the  long  run  by  being  kind  and  helpful 
than  by  being  selfish  and  unmindful  of  the  wishes  of  others.  If 
the  training  is  bad,  it  will  lead  the  child  to  the  belief  that  he  gets 
the  most  when  he  disregards  others,  and  gets  all  he  can  for  self. 
The  worst  possible  training  is  the  fond  and  foolish  kind  which 
appeals  to  unselfish  motives  (without  success,  of  course),  inflicts 
no  punishment,  and  guards  from  the  natural  consequences  of 
acts.^  A  parent  who  guards  a  child  from  the  natural  results  of 
his  wrong  acts,  and  a  teacher  who  makes  many  rules  that  only 
the  good  children  take  the  trouble  to  obey,  while  the  bad  ones 
enjoy  the  forbidden  privileges,  form  the  worst  conceivable  com- 
bination, especially  if  the  child  has  no  chance  to  play  with  chil- 
dren of  his  own  age.  The  rough  companionship  of  the  playground 
without  any  attempt  at  control  by  parent  or  teacher  would  be 
much  better.  If  he  strikes  another  child,  he  gets  a  blow  in  re- 
turn which  teaches  him  that  such  actions  are  not  profitable; 
while  if  he  strikes  a  fond  parent  he  gets  no  blow,  and  by  a  little 
crying  in  addition  he  may  get  some  jam. 

Even  sympathy,  gratitude,  and  all  the  higher  virtues  are  based 
in  part  upon  an  adequate  regard  for  self.  Only  one  who  has 
experienced  an  unpleasant  mental  state  and  felt  a  strong  desire 
to  be  freed  from  it,  can  appreciate  such  mental  states  in  others 
and  experience  gratitude  for  relief.     The  golden  rule  is  of  most 

*  For  illustration,  see  Tanner,  Journal  of  Childhood  and  Adolescence,  Vol.  11, 
pp.  91-99,  229-246. 

K 


I'O  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

significance  to  him  who  cares  most  for  himself,  providing  he  can 
imagine  the  condition  of  the  other  person. 

THE  FEEDING  INSTINCT 

This  is  one  of  the  three  most  distinct  forms  of  the  individualistic 
instinct  and  one  of  the  first  to  be  manifested.  Physically,  the 
feeding  instinct  is  the  essential  one  in  early  childhood,  but  men- 
tally it  is  of  no  great  importance.  The  apparatus  for  satisfying 
the  instinct  is  so  nearly  perfect  at  birth,  and  the  sensations  given 
by  the  first  food  —  milk  —  are  so  mild,  that  the  act  of  nursing 
produces  little  consciousness  except  of  a  general  feeling  of  satis- 
faction. When  the  instinct  is  not  satisfied,  the  sensations  arising 
from  hunger  and  from  the  act  of  crying  are,  however,  probably 
among  the  first  vivid  conscious  experiences  of  the  child.  The 
sense  of  taste  proper  plays  a  small  part  in  the  mental  life  of  the 
child  during  the  first  two  years.  His  curiosity,  playfulness,  and 
interest  are  much  more  readily  excited  by  tactile,  visual,  and 
auditory  stimuh  than  by  taste  proper.  The  pangs  of  hunger 
and  the  pleasure  of  satisfaction  rather  than  taste  sensations 
render  the  feeding  instinct  prominent  in  early  life. 

Variety  in  food  develops  in  a  positive  way  the  instinct  for  eating, 
so  that  by  the  time  a  child  is  three  or  four  years  old  sensations 
of  taste  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  his  consciousness.  This 
continues  for  several  years,  and  there  is  probably  no  time  in  life 
when  gustatory  pleasures  and  pains  are  more  intense  than  at 
five  or  six  years  of  age.  To  be  able  to  gratify  the  desire  for  agree- 
able food  and  avoid  disagreeable  tastes  is  at  this  time  one  of  the 
chief  motives  in  life. 

FEAR 

Next  to  feeding,  the  most  fundamental  instinct  is  that  oi  fear, 
which  is  shown  in  the  action  of  escaping  or  avoiding  danger. 
From  another  point  of  view,  fear  is  the  emotion  experienced  when 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    INDIVIDUALISTIC    INSTINCT     131 

such  actions  are  performed,  and  especially  when  they  are  inter- 
fered with.  Starting  at  loud  sounds  is  one  of  its  earliest  mani- 
festations in  children. 

Another  early  and  striking  evidence  of  this  instinct  is  shown 
in  the  fear  of  falling  which  often  appears  at  the  age  of  one  month, 
and  lasts  only  a  few  weeks.  This  form  of  the  instinct  may  never 
become  conscious,  since  it  dies  out  so  quickly.  The  child  may 
then  enjoy  being  tossed  and  caught  as  he  falls.  Later  he  may  be 
ready  to  step  fearlessly  off  a  high  place  and  learn  only  by  ex- 
perience to  be  afraid. 

The  modes  of  manifesting  fear  are  various,  such  as  running, 
hiding,  screaming,  keeping  silence,  changing  color,  etc.,  but  they 
are  all  largely  instinctive,  and  at  one  time  in  race  history  were 
connected  with  self-preservative  actions. 

All  new,  sudden,  and  strong  stimuli  are  likely  to  call  into 
action  the  fear-expressing  apparatus.  Sounds  are  more  frequent 
causes  of  fear  than  sights,  probably  because  such  stimulation 
may  be  more  strong  or  sudden.  Aside  from  the  strength,  sudden- 
ness, and  newness  of  the  stimulus  given,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
one  kind  of  object  is  in  itself  more  fear-exciting  than  another. 
The  dangers  to  young  animals  are  so  various  that  it  is  doubtful 
whether  in  many  cases  any  one  kind  of  danger  could  have  de- 
veloped a  specific  kind  of  fear,  such  as  fear  of  hawks  by  chickens, 
of  cats  by  mice,  or  of  snakes  by  children.  The  important  thing 
for  a  young  animal  is  that  he  shall  respond  as  his  parents  do  to 
new  stimuli,  or  if  they  are  not  present,  that  he  hide  or  get  away 
from  possible  danger.  The  chicken  crouches  when  its  mother 
gives  the  danger  signal.  When  alone  it  also  crouches  when  a 
hawk  sails  over.  It  does  the  same  when  any  large  object  sud- 
denly appears  from  above.  This  is  perhaps  a  partly  specialized 
fear  of  the  species  which  lives  on  the  ground  and  is  usually  at- 
tacked by  enemies  from  above.  The  mouse  avoids  the  cat  be- 
cause its  mother  does,  or  as  it  avoids  all  moving  things  which 


132  FCXDA3kIENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

aic  new  to  it.  The  difld  fears  a  snake  becansc  of  the  shuddos, 
adamstiaiB  and  stones  of  adults,  or  posEibly  because  of  the 
strange  fonn  and  movaneDts  of  the  icptOe. 

AtfinmnM^farmfltfspcdaMaediiistinilivefcaristhatexdtedby 
the  HangPT  can  of  parents.  U  tiioe  is  any  other  fear  that  is  in- 
stinctive it  is  £car  of  dadmess;,  bnt  possib^  that  is  a  fanrfi'iitw  in 
vUdi  fear  may  lendify  be  cxdted  la^Kr  than  a  spedic  aftfecf  of 
fear.  Al  «»«— ic  and  persons  are  more  casity  fdig^tened  in 
i^tLMagt  sanoanfir^  as  wdk  as  by  strange  objects.  Dazkness 
makes  the  sazioandings  strange  and  unknofim ;  hoKe.  in  daik- 
nessfear  is  readily  aroused. 

In  the  case  oi  childien  in  the  daik  no  filmuJ  object  is  neces- 
sary to  excite  fear;  imaginary  objects  are  sufficient.  Unless 
ddldren  have  been  accustomed  to  a  fi^it,  they  never  become 
fri^itened  at  the  dark  untfl  dieir  imaginatiop  develops.  Wliai 
a  child  is  capaUe  of  picturing  evoits,  the  lecaD  of  any  fearful 
e^ierienoe,  while  in  the  dark  where  the  tyes  do  not  omtradict 
the  imagining,  is  sufficient  to  excite  fear.  Thus  a  little  gul  about 
two,  who  had  been  told  the  st(»y  <^  the  "Three  Bears,'"  with 
realistic  imitatitMis  <tf  the  large  bear,  sadden!}^  devdoped  fear 
oi  hang  left  without  a  li^t. 

After  a  child  has  once  experienced  fear  in  the  daik,  that  t^od- 
ency  is  apt  to  continue.  His  imaginatxMi  makes  vague  or  vivid 
I»ctares  out  €ji  the  various  objects  dimly  perceived  and  this  is 
why  a  partially  lighted  ixxHn  often  arouses  more  tenor  than 
one  wholly  dark.  S<Rnetinies  the  more  vague  and  indefinite 
the  picture,  the  greater  the  fear,  for  it  has  the  demoit  of 
strangeness  and  the  diild  has  no  means  of  demonstrating:  that 
it  has  not  objective  reality.  Where  some  d^nite  x-isual  ob- 
ject is  feared,  the  fear  may  oitea  be  allayed  by  bringing  a 
hglit  and  showing  what  it  is,  or  that  nothing  is  really  there. 

There  are  few  children  who  do  not.  for  a  considerable  time, 
suffer  tortures  in  the  dark,  often  without  the  knowledge  of  their 


DEXXLOPMENT    OF    THE    INDIMDUALISTIC    INSTINCT     133 

parents.  An  unsympathetic  or  ridiculing  adult  does  not  invite 
confidence ;  hence  even  if  the  child's  fears  are  of  sufficiently 
definite  things  to  be  expressed  (as  they  often  are  not),  he  does 
not  make  many  attempts  to  explain.  He  either  suffers  in  silence 
with  head  covered  or  finds  all  sorts  of  excuses  for  getting  adults 
to  come  to  his  room  or  for  having  a  light. 

The  period  of  greatest  fear,  though  it  varies  with  special  ex- 
periences, is  usually  at  about  three  or  four  years  of  age.  Xo 
matter  how  careful  parents  may  be  about  having  their  children 
frightened  by  stories  or  otherwise,  they  frequently  become  at 
this  time  virtually  little  "'fraid  cats."  Biologically,  this  is  the 
time  when  they  begin  to  act  for  themselves  to  some  extent  away 
from  parents,  and  consequently  the  time  at  which  readiness  to 
become  frightened  and  run  home  would  be  most  useful.  Psycho- 
logically, it  is  a  time  when  the  imagination  is  very  active,  and 
when  its  action  is  not  limited  by  any  fixed  laws  of  possibility 
or  probability.  Children,  however,  who  are  unimaginative,  or 
who  are  fortunate  enough  to  escape  fearful  experiences,  are 
occasionally  at  this  time  literally  without  fear.  Never  having 
experienced  it  they  do  not  know  what  it  is.  A  single  experience, 
however,  in  which  the  child  is  really  frightened  (not  merely  hurt), 
may  transform  him  into  an  arrant  coward. 

Fear  should  be  and  usually  is  a  waning  instinct,  yet  one  that 
never  entirely  dies  out.  As  the  child  becomes  better  able  to 
take  care  of  himself,  and  more  familiar  with  his  surroimdings, 
fear  in  the  sense  of  a  sudden  and  strong  emotion  becomes  less, 
though  fear  in  the  sense  of  caution  or  prudence  is  increasing. 
With  progress  in  civilization,  and  knowledge  which  makes  the 
conditions  of  life  safer,  and  leads  more  and  more  to  the  belief 
that  even  the  imknown  is  governed  by  known  laws,  fear  should 
gradually  die  out. 

Undoubtedly,  there  is  less  fear  than  formerly,  but  many 
people  suffer  all  their  lives  from  fears  which  are  usually  quite 


134  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

unreasonable.  Some  of  these  fears  of  objects  and  of  natural 
forces  and  forms,  such  as  thunder,  fire,  water,  caves,  reptiles, 
and  insects,  may  be  survivals  from  more  primitive  conditions  of 
life ;  but  they  are  probably  merely  transmitted  from  one  genera- 
tion to  another  by  social  heredity.  Other  fears,  such  as  of  guns, 
engines,  knives,  etc.,  cannot  possibly  be  instinctive. 

Fear  in  the  sense  of  prudence,  which  leads  one  to  avoid  what 
is  likely  to  bring  unpleasant  results,  or  in  the  sense  of  caution 
in  regard  to  incurring  unknown  consequences,  is  a  good  thing ; 
but  fear,  in  the  sense  of  a  sudden,  strong,  paralyzing  emotion, 
is  injurious  physically,  stupefying  mentally  and  degenerative 
morally.  It  makes  one's  life  miserable,  weak,  unworthy.  Every 
effort  should  therefore  be  made  to  eradicate  it  and  to  develop 
courage. 

A  certain  kindergarten  teacher  had  a  strong  fear  of  mice,  bugs, 
etc.  One  day  a  mouse  appeared  in  the  schoolroom.  Realizing 
the  necessity  she  controlled  by  a  great  effort  her  tendency  to 
show  her  feelings,  and  calling  the  children's  attention  to  the  little 
animal's  search  for  crumbs,  she  and  they  watched  it  together. 
In  giving  nature  study  lessons  she  resolutely  concealed  her 
aversion  to  the  caterpillars  and  other  objects  which  were  so 
interesting  to  the  children,  and  in  the  end  her  antipathies  en- 
tirely disappeared. 

Fear  is  so  powerful  an  instinct  in  children  that  by  means  of 
it  they  may  be  made  to  do  almost  anything.  It  should  not, 
however,  be  used  as  a  motive  except  in  the  milder  forms,  which 
develop  prudence  and  caution  rather  than  terror. 

As  to  modes  of  dealing  with  the  fear  of  children,  a  few  general 
principles  only  are  clear.  Occasions  of  fear  should  be  avoided 
as  far  as  may  be,  and  when  it  is  excited,  reassurance  given  as 
quickly  as  possible. 

Not  only  are  fears  excited  by  actual  and  imaginary  experiences 
of  the  child,  but  by  the  manifestations  of  fear  by  the  child's 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    INDIVIDUALISTIC    INSTINCT     135 

companions ;  hence  companionship  with  those  who  are  easily 
frightened  should  be  avoided.  To  compel  children  to  endure 
terrors  is  decidedly  cruel,  and  utterly  useless  as  a  corrective.  If 
their  fears  can  be  allayed  by  temporarily  bringing  a  Hght  or  other- 
wise removing  the  cause  of  fear,  or  if  the  child  can  be  induced  to 
be  "brave"  and  face  it  himself,  much  is  gained.  Unreasonable 
fears,  which  are  the  most  common  and  least  dependent  upon 
experience,  cannot,  as  a  rule,  be  dissipated  by  reasoning;  but 
one  can  only  trust  to  quieting  assurances,  time  and  experience, 
and  the  growth  of  courage  and  self-control,  to  effect  a  cure. 

Fears  caused  by  unfortunate  first  experiences  with  a  class  of 
objects  may  usually  be  dissipated  by  reasoning  and  favorable 
experiences.  The  quicker  such  cure  can  be  appHed,  the  better. 
For  example,  a  two-year-old  boy  was  frightened  by  a  thunder- 
storm; but  at  his  first  call,  suggesting  rising  terror,  his  father 
went  to  him  and  talked  to  him,  comparing  the  flashes  to  the 
lighting  of  great  matches,  and  remained  with  him  awhile,  ad- 
miring the  beauty  of  the  storm.  The  result  was  that  he  never 
afterward  showed  fear  of  a  thimderstorm. 

Fears  that  cannot  be  overcome  by  reason  may  often  be  cured 
by  persistent  action  in  opposition  to  the  fear;  e.g.  to  get  over 
the  fear  of  cats  one  should  not  only  cease  to  show  fear  of  them, 
but  should  think  of  their  agreeable  qualities  and  act  as  if  they 
were  desirable  pets  to  be  with  and  to  fondle,  thus  changing  his 
motor  and  mental  attitude  toward  them. 

THE  FIGHTING  INSTINCT 

The  fighting  instinct  and  its  accompanying  emotion,  anger, 
are  early  aroused  by  anything  interfering  with  the  child's  activi- 
ties or  wishes.  It  is  first  manifested  by  crying,  turning  away 
the  head,  pushing  away  an  offending  object,  and  later  in  kicking 
and  striking,  and  not  infrequently  by  stamping  with  the  feet  or 
striking  the  head  against  the  floor. 


136  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

In  general,  this  emotion  is  more  intense  and  easily  aroused 
in  children  than  in  adults,  but  also  very  much  shorter-Hved. 
Within  a  space  of  less  than  half  a  minute,  a  boy  of  two  fondly 
stroked  his  mother,  then  jumped  from  her  lap  in  anger  when  she 
refused  to  let  him  do  what  he  wished,  then  burst  out  laughing  at 
something  he  saw. 

In  dealing  with  this  emotion  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
occasions  of  anger,  especially  when  the  child  is  hungry  or  other- 
wise in  an  irritable  mood,  and  equal  care  taken  that  he  gains 
nothing  by  his  outburst,  but  rather  loses  something.  Under  no 
circumstance  should  the  parent  or  teacher  meet  anger  with 
anger,  for  nothing  will  more  surely  make  the  matter  worse. 
Indifference,  isolation,  or  a  calm  resistance  which  makes  the 
child  realize  the  utter  uselessness  of  his  passion  are  usually  more 
effective.  The  reaction  following  a  futile  outburst  of  anger  is 
likely  to  arouse  reflections  which  if  skillfully  directed  may  lead 
to  future  efforts  at  self-control. 

As  to  the  fighting  instinct,  and  the  much  mooted  question 
whether  boys  should  be  allowed  to  fight,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
instinct  is  a  natural  and  legitimate  one  if  not  carried  to  excess. 
A  boy  with  no  tendency  to  fight  under  any  circumstance  would 
be  unnatural  as  a  child,  and  probably  a  nonentity  as  a  man. 
Nothing  can  be  more  unwise  than  to  tell  a  child  he  must  never 
fight.  It  is  not  only  unwise  but  wrong  to  absolutely  prohibit 
a  child  from  fighting  —  wrong  to  his  nature,  and  to  that  of  other 
boys,  who  will  thus  be  tempted  to  impose  upon  him.  Fighting 
is  a  crude  form  of  social  action  adapted  to  the  early  stage  of 
human  development,  and  may  result  in  valuable  lessons. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  a  rule,  the  tendency  to  fight  needs  no 
encouragement.  The  best  corrective  for  extreme  pugnacity  is, 
however,  an  encounter  with  a  superior  in  the  art,  rather  than  the 
words  or  blows  of  some  one  in  authority. 

Competition  is  a  form  of  fighting  that  is  very  prominent  all 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    INDIVIDUALISTIC    INSTINCT     137 

through  life.  The  tendency  to  individual  competition  is  very 
strong  the  first  half-dozen  years  of  school  life  and  may  very 
properly  be  utilized  in  school.  Care  should  be  taken  to  make 
it  fair  to  all,  and  after  a  time  it  should  take  the  form  of  competi- 
tion of  groups  rather  than  of  individuals.  In  this  form  it  is  of 
course  more  social  than  individualistic. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1 .  Give  illustrations  of  the  strength  of  individualistic  instincts  in  adults. 

2.  Give  proof  showing  the  uselessness  to  the  species  of  any  other  than 
individualistic  acts  by  children. 

3.  Give  a  number  of  observations  you  have  made,  showing  how  children 
are  governed  by  individualistic  motives. 

4.  It  will  be  well  to  make  the  experiment  of  having  children  and  adults 
write  sentences  containing  common  words,  and  note  to  what  extent  self  is 
brought  in. 

5.  Two  children  of  four  and  six,  who  went  to  buy  a  present  for  baby 
sister  and  for  grandma,  could  hardly  be  prevented  from  buying  things  that 
neither  baby  nor  grandma  could  use,  though  attractive  to  children  of  their 
own  age.    Why  was  this? 

6.  Mention  a  number  of  ways  of  using  rivalry  in  school. 

7.  Women  are  more  personal  in  their  relations  than  men ;  they  are  also 
better  primary  teachers.     Is  there  any  relation  between  these  two  qualities? 

8.  Which  should  a  teacher  praise,  perfectness  of  results  or  individual 
effort  and  achievement?    Why? 

9.  Which  wovdd  you  rather  have,  a  child  with  too  much  or  too  little 
regard  for  and  confidence  in  self?    Why? 

10.  Illustrate  how  a  child  may  be  led  to  see  that  he  can  get  more  pleasure 
by  obedience  and  kindness  than  by  the  opposite. 

11.  A  little  girl  who  had  often  been  reproved  for  not  persisting  in  her 
tasks  showed  a  great  deal  of  gratitude  when  her  father  worked  a  long  while 
to  make  something  for  her.    Why  was  this  ? 

12.  Give  illustrations  of  sjonpathy  and  gratitude  of  children. 

13.  Report  observations  or  reminiscences  of  the  prominence  of  the  desire 
in  children  for  good  things  to  eat. 

14.  Give  a  full  report  of  your  own  fears  at  different  ages,  also  report  ob- 
servations that  you  have  made. 


138  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

15.  Give  evidence  for  and  against  the  view  that  there  are  special  instinc- 
tive fears. 

16.  Illustrate  the  importance  of  first  experiences  in  giving  rise  to  fears. 

17.  Show  how  caution  may  be  developed  without  exciting  fear. 

18.  Report  from  observation  and  reading  modes  of  treating  anger. 

19.  Discuss  evils  and  advantages  of  fighting  among  boys  and  the  possi- 
bilities of  regulating  and  redirecting  the  instinct  by  having  them  engage 
in  boxing,  football,  or  hard  work  of  any  kind,  and  by  teaching  them  to 
attack  causes  of  exasperating  conditions  instead  of  persons  concerned  in 
them. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  instinct  of  self-preservation,  see  Drummond,  Ascent  of  Man,  chap. 

vi,  and  Ribot,  Psychology  of  Emotions,  pp.  199-206,  and  on  egoism  and 

altruism,  consult  psychologies,  especially  Hoefding. 
On  the  early  emotions  and  their  expression,  see  Compayre,  Vol.  I,  chap,  v ; 

also  Preyer,  Tracy,  et  al. 
On  fear,  read  Ribot,  pp.  207-217  ;  Hall,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  147- 

249 ;  Stanley,  Psycho.  Rev.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  241-256 ;  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  IX, 

pp.  418-419 ;  Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  18-21 ;  Calkins,  Ped. 

Sem.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  319-323;   Sitwer,  Kg.  Mag.,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  82-87; 

Tracy,  pp.  44-47;    Preyer,  Part  I,  pp.   164-172;    Sully,  Studies  in 

Childhood,  chap,  vi;  Rowe,  Outlook,  Sept.  4,  1898,  p.  234. 
On  anger,  read  Hall,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  516-591 ;  Ribot,  pp.  218- 

229;    Tracy,  pp.  47-49. 

Later  References 
Books 
Bolton  Dnmimond  Watson 

Bruce  Thomdike  (8) 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  RACIAL  INSTINCT 

LATENESS  OF  DEVELOPMENT 

The  term  "  racial  instinct "  includes  all  native  tendencies  to 
produce  and  care  for  the  young.  Since  sexual  reproduction  is 
the  rule  in  all  animal  life  except  in  a  very  few  of  the  lowest  forms, 
and  since  it  has  been  necessary  among  all  species  that  have  sur- 
vived, it  might  be  supposed  that  the  racial  instinct  would  appear 
in  man  at  a  very  early  age.  This  instinct,  however,  does  not, 
as  a  rule,  appear  with  much  prominence  until  more  than  a  dozen 
years  after  birth;  hence  primitiveness  and  universal  usefulness 
cannot,  in  this  case  at  least,  be  the  most  important  factors 
governing  the  order  of  the  development  of  instincts  in  the 
individual.  Evidently  the  principle  of  usefulness,  as  deter- 
mined by  degree  of  maturity  of  the  young  animal  and  the  con- 
ditions under  which  he  must  live,  is  the  factor  of  greatest 
significance  here. 

All  physical  and  mental  tests  show  that  the  differences  be- 
tween boys  and  girls  are  slight  up  to  ten  years  of  age.  As  a  rule, 
boys  and  girls  exercise  very  little  sexual  influence  upon  each 
other  until  just  before  puberty,  though  there  are  of  course  many 
exceptions.  Most  of  the  little  "love  affairs"  between  small 
boys  and  girls  are  not  greatly  different  from  the  chumming  of 
those  of  the  same  sex. 

At  puberty,  however,  there  is  a  change.  At  first  it  is  mani- 
fested in  a  slight  shyness  in  each  other's  presence,  or  in  repug- 

139 


I40  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

nance  to  the  companionship  of  the  opposite  sex.  A  little  later 
there  is  a  subtle  attraction  toward  persons  of  the  opposite  sex, 
and  a  marked  tendency  to  dress  and  act  differently  in  their 
presence.  This  tendency  soon  becomes  very  strong.  In  the 
meantime,  distinct  sexual  feeUngs  may  have  been  experienced  in 
connection  with  dreams  or  otherwise. 

In  the  ideal  normal  development  the  sexual  feeling  and  im- 
pulse are  unconsciously  the  basis  of  the  attraction  toward  the 
opposite  sex,  and  of  the  desire  to  attract  the  notice  of  its  members 
and  please  them.  The  age  of  love  and  romance  has  come,  and 
well  for  the  youth  is  it  if  in  loving  he  is  conscious  only  of  the 
physical  beauty  and  moral  and  intellectual  worth  of  his  love, 
while  the  unconscious  sex  passion  remains  an  unrecognized  but 
all-powerful  force,  impelling  him  to  devote  himself  unreservedly 
to  the  object  of  his  regard. 

There  are,  however,  earlier  manifestations  or  premonitions  of 
one  form  of  the  racial  instinct  in  caring  for  pets  and  yoimger 
children  by  both  sexes,  and  in  doll  play,  chiefly  by  girls.  It 
may  be,  however,  that  such  care-taking  activities  are  the  result 
of  social  influence  and  imitation,  or,  as  Hall  suggests,  of  fetichism 
rather  than  of  the  development  of  the  racial  instinct. 

The  protective  instinct  is  very  strong  in  the  higher  animals 
for  brief  periods,  while  their  young  are  helpless ;  but  in  man  it 
is  much  more  lasting  and  of  a  higher  form,  leading  to  care  for 
intellectual  and  moral,  as  well  as  physical  welfare.  Parents  live 
again  in  their  children  and  strive  to  secure  for  them  a  broader, 
better,  and  happier  life  than  they  themselves  have  had.  All 
normal  persons  have  the  impulse  to  protect  and  assist  the  weak 
and  helpless,  and  the  higher  spiritual  instincts  can  only  be 
satisfied  in  this  way.  All  good  teachers,  especially  of  younger 
children,  have  this  instinct  in  a  marked  degree.  Teaching,  in 
a  measure,  takes  the  place  of  parenthood  in  the  development 
and  maturing  of  character. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  RACIAL  INSTINCT     141 

RELATION    OF    THE    RACIAL    INSTINCT    TO    OTHER    IMPULSES    AND 

FEELINGS 

Since  the  racial  instinct  is  and  has  been  in  all  ages  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  continuation  of  the  species,  and  is  in  its  very 
nature  both  individual  and  social,  it  has  become  associated  with 
all  forms  of  action. 

On  the  one  hand,  it  has  developed  the  fighting  tendency, 
since  fighting  for  a  mate  is  the  most  common  form  of  combat. 
The  tendency  to  competition  is  thus  increased,  courage  is  de- 
veloped, and  ambition  aroused.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has 
developed  the  opposite  tendency  of  seeking  the  favor  of  a  mate. 
Most  male  animals  engage  in  some  kind  of  courtship  in  which 
they  exhibit  their  powers  and  charms  to  the  best  advantage. 

The  tendency  to  certain  forms  of  play  and  to  adornment  is 
also  increased  by  the  sexual  impulses.  Darwin  and  others  hold 
that  there  is  a  close  relation  between  the  development  of  the 
aesthetic  sense  and  sexual  selection.  It  is  significant  that  love 
is  the  most  frequent  inspiration  to  artistic  productions  in  poetry, 
painting,  and  music.  Lancaster  finds  that  the  appreciation  of 
beauty  is  greatly  increased  at  puberty.  There  is  good  reason, 
therefore,  for  holding  that  the  aesthetic  feelings  and  impulses 
are  closely  related  to  this  instinct. 

It  is  evident,  without  discussion,  that  the  social  instincts  and 
feelings  are  only  extensions  of  the  racial  instinct  from  the  family 
to  larger  groups. 

Moral  impulses  and  feelings  are  evidently  related  to  the 
racial  instinct,  since  one  of  the  first  and  most  important  forms 
of  ownership  is  the  ownership  of  a  mate,  and  resulting  from  such 
ownership  are  certain  rights  and  duties.  In  this  instinct  we 
find  the  first  impulse  to  please,  help,  and  guard  others  instead  of 
to  act  wholly  for  self.  The  virtues  of  diligence  in  seeking  food, 
and   courage   in   fighting   rivals   and  defending  offspring,  are 


142  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

developed  in  the  males,  and  those  of  patience  and  tenderness 
in  the  females. 

The  relation  of  the  racial  instinct  to  the  religious  was  long  ago 
suggested  by  the  fact  that  revivals  and  religious  excitement 
were  frequently  accompanied  by  many  engagements  and  mar- 
riages. Modern  research  has  confirmed  this  view  and  shown  that 
in  all  ages  and  among  all  peoples,  religion  and  the  sexual  impulse 
are  related  in  some  way.  The  exact  causal  relations  are  not 
yet  clear,  but  both  instincts  involve  something  of  the  same  feel- 
ing of  love,  reverence,  and  self-devotion  to  the  object  of  one's 
love.  Hence  religious  awakening  frequently  results  in  love  for 
some  one  of  the  opposite  sex,  and  love  often  leads  to  religious 
interest.  For  similar  reasons  sexual  and  religious  excesses  and 
abnormalities  are  frequently  associated. 

It  is  evident  that  the  racial  instinct  is  not  only  necessary  to 
the  Hfe  of  the  species,  but  also  to  the  health  of  the  individual 
physically  and  spiritually.  No  other  instinct,  therefore,  exer- 
cises such  a  profound  and  far-reaching  influence  upon  character. 

RIGHT  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   RACIAL  INSTINCT 

Since  the  racial  instinct  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  in- 
stincts, and  in  man  is  related  to  all  phases  of  his  nature,  it  is 
especially  important  that  it  develop  along  right  lines.  In  order 
that  this  take  place  there  must  be  avoidance  (i)  of  an  excessive 
or  perverted  development,  and  (2)  of  unfortunate  associations 
in  consciousness. 

(i)  Sex  feelings  and  perverted  functioning  of  the  instinct 
sometimes  occur  in  young  children  and  even  in  infants,  but  most 
commonly  at  puberty.  Looking  at  the  matter  from  the  physio- 
logical side,  we  note  that  not  infrequently  some  physical  defect 
is  the  cause  of  sex  excitement  and  perversion  in  childhood. 
Circumcision  is  often  helpful  in  preventing  such  premature 
development  in  boys.    Uncleanness  and  irritation  produced  by 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  RACIAL  INSTINCT     143 

clothing  are  to  be  avoided  as  frequent  exciters  of  the  organs. 
The  ganglion  especially  concerned  in  the  sex  instinct  is  located 
in  the  lumbar  region  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  heat  is  a  most  potent 
stimulus;  hence  the  sleeping  of  a  child  with  back  to  a  feather 
bed  or  to  a  companion,  especially  in  a  warm  room  or  under  thick 
covers,  should  not  be  permitted.  Stimulating  food  should  be 
avoided,  and  as  puberty  is  approached  it  is  especially  important 
that  the  child  have  plenty  of  outdoor  exercise  and  something  to 
occupy  mind  and  body. 

From  the  social  side  it  is  desirable  that  boys  and  girls  should 
play  together  freely  without  sex  distinctions  being  made  promi- 
nent. Social  customs  usually  demand  different  conduct  on  the 
part  of  girls,  but  it  were  well  to  make  the  differences  as  slight  as 
possible,  before  ten  at  least.  Joking  young  boys  or  girls  about 
their  beaus  is  more  objectionable  than  pulling  at  buds  on  the 
rosebush  long  before  they  are  ready  to  open.  Boys  and  girls 
should  be  permitted  to  remain  good  comrades  and  chums  as  long 
as  possible  without  any  thought  of  love. 

There  is  no  reason  whatever  for  separating  boys  and  girls  in 
primary  schools.  In  secondary  schools  and  colleges  there  are 
many  arguments  on  both  sides.  There  is  no  doubt,  however, 
that  sexual  development  is  more  normal  and  healthy  when  the 
sexes  are  together  a  great  deal  than  when  they  are  separated. 
This,  and  the  fact  that  the  best  education  for  life  is  most  like 
the  life  to  be  lived,  are  strong  arguments  for  coeducation  in  this 
country,  where  men  and  women  meet  so  much  on  equal  planes 
after  they  leave  school. 

(2)  The  question  of  greatest  practical  importance  regarding 
the  racial  instinct  is,  "  What  conscious  associations  with  the 
impulse  shall  be  formed?"  The  associations  may  be  low 
and  vile,  or  high  and  pure.  In  the  one  case,  selfish  sensualism 
is  likely  to  result,  and  in  the  other,  altruistic  devotion  and  social 
service. 


144  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

This  matter  is  closely  connected  with  the  question  of  how  boys 
and  girls  shall  acquire  a  knowledge  of  sex  functions. 

It  may  be  asserted  that  in  the  case  of  this  as  in  other  instincts 
it  is  best  to  let  the  instinct  gradually  and  naturally  come  into 
consciousness  as  it  begins  to  function.  This  would  be  a  good 
way  to  do  were  it  not  for  a  few  very  practical  reasons  against  it. 

In  the  first  place,  social  customs  and  moral  principles  do  not 
permit  the  functioning  of  the  instinct  except  in  a  very  Hmited 
and  prescribed  way,  and  that  not  until  long  after  the  instinct 
has  become  very  strong;  hence  the  necessity  of  controlling  the 
instinct  must  be  learned  artificially  rather  than  by  the  natural 
social  punishment  following  indulgence. 

Second,  ignorance  of  sex  functions  cannot  be  preserved  in 
boys  or  girls  who  associate  with  others.  They  inevitably  ac- 
quire some  knowledge,  and  that  usually  of  the  filthiest  sort. 

In  the  third  place,  the  sex  instinct,  not  having  opportunity  for 
its  natural  functioning,  is  likely  to  produce  unnatural  modes  of 
gratification,  whose  evil  ejffects  are  unknown  to  the  youth.  Re- 
cent studies  indicate  that  this  is  the  case  among  nine  tenths  of 
the  best  boys.  Such  unnatural  gratification  is  injurious  physi- 
cally when  carried  to  excess,  as  it  often  is,  and  more  or  less  damag- 
ing morally  even  if  not  carried  to  excess.  This  is  especially 
true  where  the  imagination  plays  a  large  part  in  the  indulgence. 
The  fountains  of  pure  love,  manhood,  and  decency  are  often 
forever  befouled.  The  youth  is  thereby  unfitted  for  the  highest 
type  of  love,  the  most  perfect  union  with  one  of  the  other  sex, 
and  the  purest  fatherhood.  His  social,  aesthetic,  moral,  and  re- 
ligious capacities  are  also  almost  inevitably  undeveloped  or 
perverted. 

The  importance  of  giving  the  sexual  impulse  right  associations 
is  very  much  emphasized  by  recent  studies  of  sexual  abnormali- 
ties. It  seems  that,  on  the  one  hand,  almost  anything,  by  means 
of  association,  may  become  a  stimulus  to  the  sexual  feelings; 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  RACIAL  INSTINCT     145 

while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  unexpended  sexual  energy  may  be 
utilized  in  almost  any  line  of  physical,  emotional,  or  intellectual 
life.  Science,  religion,  and  philanthropy,  as  well  as  art,  litera- 
ture, and  industry,  may  be  promoted,  therefore,  by  the  use  of  the 
unexpended  energy  of  the  all-powerful  sexual  impulse,  diverted 
by  appropriate  associations  into  these  channels. 

It  is  surprising  how  long  civilized  people  have  continued  to 
believe  in  the  idea  that  children  may  be  kept  innocent  sexually 
by  keeping  them  ignorant  of  sex  functions  It  has  always  been 
a  double  failure,  for  the  attempt  to  keep  children  ignorant  has 
almost  universally  failed ;  hence  on  that  score  the  choice  is  neces- 
sarily between  half  knowledge  reeking  with  secret  filth  and  evil 
suggestions,  and  full  satisfying  knowledge  drawn  from  the  pure 
fountain  of  parental  wisdom,  accompanied  with  and  suggestive 
of  high  feelings  and  holy  impulses. 

It  is  generally  acknowledged  that  the  sexual  impulse  is  in- 
evitably one  of  the  most  powerful  inner  Hfe  tendencies,  especially 
during  the  adolescent  period.  This  instinct  may  be  the  basis 
of  all  manly  and  womanly  virtues,  stimulating  to  love,  tender- 
ness, devotion,  courage,  and  high  aspiration  in  social,  aesthetic, 
moral,  and  religious  life,  or  the  foul  source  of  hate,  brutality, 
self-indulgence,  weakness,  and  low  desires,  in  a  purely  selfish 
and  beastly  life ;  yet,  as  a  rule,  young  people  are  allowed  to  re- 
main ignorant  of  all  this. 

No  parent  who  loved  his  children  would  permit  them  to  go 
out  from  his  care  into  new  surroundings,  sure  to  make  or  mar 
them  morally,  without  seeking  to  prepare  them  for  avoiding 
dangers  and  securing  benefits  in  the  new  conditions  of  life. 
The  adolescent  is  entering  such  a  life ;  hence  there  is  no  excuse 
for  allowing  him  to  enter  it  without  some  foreknowledge  of  the 
facts,  possibilities,  and  dangers  to  be  faced. 

The  imperfect  knowledge  gained  from  companions  is  both 
unsatisfactory  and  misleading.     Lancaster  found  in  the  posses- 


146  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

sion  of  one  advertising  firm,  seven  hundred  and  five  thousand 
letters  from  boys  who  had  thus  consulted  quacks  regarding  their 
perverted  habits  and  real  or  supposed  diseases.  Some  had  paid 
himdreds  of  dollars  for  treatment,  when  the  symptoms  described 
were  perfectly  normal  (such  as  sexual  dreams).  Many  of  the 
boys  were  suffering  untold  agonies  because  they  supposed  they 
were  ruined  physically,  socially,  and  morally.  They  dared  not 
speak  to  parent,  family  physician,  or  adult  friend,  but  poured 
out  their  whole  souls  to  these  distant  and  unworthy  strangers. 

As  to  when  the  knowledge  should  be  given,  the  answer  is  plain, 
i.e.,  when  the  child  first  questions  regarding  it  and  whenever 
further  questions  call  for  fuller  explanations.  An  unanswered 
question  is  insistent ;  curiosity  once  aroused,  grows  by  attempts 
of  others  to  suppress  or  divert  it,  and  the  matter  is  almost  surely 
dwelt  upon  secretly,  and  frequently  knowledge  is  surreptitiously 
sought.  If  one  waits  till  the  advent  of  puberty,  the  mind  of 
the  youth  is  probably  already  befouled,  and  in  any  case,  very 
much  directing  of  attention  to  the  matter  at  this  time  may 
stimulate  undesirable  subjective  states.  To  speak  frankly  for 
the  first  time  to  a  child  of  this  age  is  also  so  embarrassing  that 
not  one  parent  in  a  thousand  dare  attempt  it,  though  he  knows 
it  to  be  his  duty.  On  the  other  hand,  the  perfect  and  uncon- 
scious innocence  of  the  child  of  four  who  asks  where  he  came 
from  or  about  parts  of  his  body,  makes  plain,  unabashed  speak- 
ing comparatively  easy  to  adults  who  ordinarily  cannot  free  the 
subject  from  its,  to  them,  evil  suggestions.  Further  and  fuller 
information  should  be  given  as  the  child  grows  older.  The  tend- 
ency on  the  part  of  the  child  to  go  to  the  parent  for  information 
on  this  subject  as  frankly  and  freely  as  on  other  subjects,  in- 
stead of  seeking  it  secretly  or  of  evil  companions,  should  be 
carefully  preserved. 

Perfect  truthfulness  and  frankness  is  the  one  essential,  though 
much  is  gained  by  giving  this  truth  sacred  associations.     Books 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  RACIAL  INSTINCT     147 

written  for  the  purpose  of  giving  sex  information  may  be  useful, 
but  should  not  wholly  take  the  place  of  frank  talks  between 
parent  and  child.  Teachers  may  sometimes  be  very  helpful 
to  young  people  whose  parents  have  neglected  their  duty  in 
this  regard. 

TEACHING   SEX   HYGIENE   AND   MORALS 

There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  at  the  present  time  as  to 
the  wisdom  of  giving  instruction  in  sex  hygiene  and  morals  in 
school.  Although  admitting  that  such  instruction  should  be 
given  in  the  home,  it  is  claimed  with  truth  that  the  majority  of 
homes  are  not  giving  it  and  that  therefore  the  school  should 
take  up  the  neglected  work.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said 
that  effort  might  better  be  directed  toward  educating  parents 
in  the  performance  of  this  duty  than  imposing  it  upon  teachers, 
who  are  less  fitted  for  it  in  many  ways.  Instruction  by  a  spe- 
cialist may  serve  as  a  temporary  expedient  in  school,  and  perhaps 
be  of  permanent  value. 

It  is  not  likely,  however,  that  the  situation  will  ever  be  ade- 
quately met  by  special  courses  in  sex  hygiene  in  the  public 
schools.  The  true  solution  will  rather  be  found  in  giving  such 
instruction  regarding  reproduction  as  naturally  goes  with  the 
various  subjects  taught,  instead  of  omitting  those  topics.  The 
processes  of  reproduction  and  embryonic  development  should 
be  treated  with  the  same  frankness  and  fullness  in  nature  study, 
physiology,  and  biology  as  are  other  less  important  and  inter- 
esting life  processes. 

In  the  high  school  the  instruction  needed  is  not  merely  physi- 
ological, but  social  and  moral.  Right  social  habits  and  ideals 
of  morality  are  more  necessary  than  knowledge. 

Neither  is  it  sufficient  to  show  the  possible  dangers  to  self  of 
excessive  and  irregular  sexual  conduct  on  the  part  of  young 
people.    Such  teaching,  even  if  it  does  not  appeal  to  the  spirit 


148 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 


of  adventure  rather  than  fear,  will  lead  only  to  selfish  caution. 
The  fact  that  a  future  wife  or  child  may  be  the  innocent  victim 
of  one's  self-indulgence  may  serve  as  a  much  more  potent  and 
noble  motive  for  self-control. 

Something  more  than  negative  teaching  is,  however,  needed. 
Ideals  of  the  highest  types  of  sexual  love  as  portrayed  in  litera- 
ture should  be  brought  to  young  people,  and  along  with  that 
there  should  be  the  greatest  care  exercised  in  the  high  school  in 
promoting  free,  refined  social  relations  between  young  people  in 
accordance  with  the  best  social  usages.  By  these  positive,  yet  in- 
direct means,  much  more  may  be  accomplished  than  by  occasional 
direct  negative  teaching  of  the  evils  following  wrong  conduct. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  significance  of  the  racial  and  social  instincts,  read  Dnimmond, 
Ascent  of  Man,  chaps,  viii  and  ix ;  Ribot,  Psychology  of  the  Emotions, 
pp.  248-259,  275-289 ;  Small,  Fed.  Sem.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  13-68. 

On  the  general  problem  of  sex,  see  Geddes  and  Thompson,  Evolution  oj 
Sex;  EUis,  Man  and  Woman;  Clark,  Sex  in  Education. 

On  the  sexual  and  social  characteristics  at  puberty,  see  Lancaster,  Fed. 
Sent.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  61-128,  and  any  other  articles  on  "  Adolescence." 
See  also  Bell  on  "  Love  between  the  Sexes,"  Am.  Jr.  Fsych.,  Vol.  XIII, 
pp.  335-354;  Brockman,  Fed.  Sem.,  Vol.  DC,  pp.  255-276. 

On  information  regarding  sex  functions,  see  Hart,  Jr.  Ch.  and  Ad.,  April, 
1902,  pp.  107-116 ;  Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  301-308,  and  the 
best  of  the  books  described  in  the  latter  article. 


Later  References 

Books 

Andrews 

Hall,  W.  (i  &  2) 

Lowry 

Bigelow 

Healy 

Morley 

Bolton 

Henderson,  C.  R. 

Morrow 

Brill 

Holt,  E.  B. 

Slaughter 

Foster 

Hood 

Starr 

HaU,  G.  S. 

(i) 

King  (4) 

Willi.son 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  RACIAL  INSTINCT      149 

Articles 

Eddy,  W.   H.    An  Experiment  in  Teaching  Sex  Hygiene.    Jr.  Educ. 

Psychol.,  1911,  Vol.  2,  pp.  451-458. 
Hall,  G.  Stanley.    The  Needs  and   Methods   of    Educating   the   Young 

People  in  the  Hygiene  of  Sex.     Ped.  Sem.,  1908,  Vol.  15,  pp.  82-91. 
Schmitt,  Clara.    The  Teaching  of  the  Facts  of  Sex  in  the  Public  School. 

Ped.  Sem.,  1910,  Vol.  17,  pp.  229-241. 
Smith,  Theodate  L.    Types  of  Adolescent  Affection.     Ped.   Sem.,   1904, 

VoL  II,  pp.  178-203. 


CHAPTER  DC 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  SOCIAL  INSTINCT 

FORMS   OF   THE   INSTINCT 

Men  are  preeminently  social  beings.  Among  all  races  of 
men  are  to  be  found,  not  only  families^  but  larger  aggregations, 
living  in  close  proximity  and  association  with  each  other.  This 
is  necessarily  so,  since  sohtary  individuals  have  little  chance  of 
survival  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  Desire  for  companion- 
ship is  the  natural  inheritance  of  an  ancestry  that  must  have 
sought  it  in  order  to  survive.  Hermits  are  therefore  rare  ex- 
ceptions, while  to  most  persons  solitude  is  the  greatest  of  punish- 
ments. 

This  instinct  is  manifested  in  various  kinds  of  native  reactions 
to  persons,  such  as  observing,  imitating,  competing,  and  is  also 
shown  in  several  rather  distinct  forms,  (i)  in  the  tendency  to 
seek  the  companionship  of  others,  or  gregariousness ;  (2)  in  the 
impulse  to  feel  as  others  do,  or  sympathy;  (3)  in  efforts  to  please 
others,  or  love  of  approbation;  (4)  in  competitive  and  co- 
operative activity;  (5)  in  loyalty  and  altruism.  Ambition  is 
the  product  of  one  or  more  of  these  tendencies. 

(i)  The  gregarious  instinct  needs  to  be  prominent  in  the 
young,  as  their  life  depends  upon  their  associations  with  adults. 
Most  children  manifest  a  desire  for  the  presence  of  adults  before 
they  can  walk.  A  little  later,  though  ordinarily  shy  of  strangers, 
they  seek  the  protection  of  any  human  being,  if  frightened  by  an 
animal.  As  early  as  the  second  year  they  manifest  great  pleasure 
in  the  company  of  children  near  their  own  age.     Evidently  they 

150 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  SOCIAL  INSTINCT     151 

feel  the  greater  likeness  to  themselves,  and  this  "consciousness 
of  kind"  produces  a  relationship  different  from  that  with  adults. 
Young  children  not  only  enjoy  the  company  of  other  children 
as  they  cannot  that  of  older  people  who  are  so  different,  but  they 
also  often  understand  each  other  much  better  than  adults  under- 
stand them. 

Association  with  persons  who  are  older,  and  with  those  who 
are  younger,  gives  pleasure  and  valuable  social  development; 
but  these  are  produced  in  greatest  measure  by  association  with 
those  of  one's  own  age,  where  there  is  both  give  and  take,  coupled 
with  a  better  imderstanding  and  efforts  for  common  ends.  Chil- 
dren, even  as  early  as  the  second  year,  receive  an  education  from 
being  with  those  of  their  own  age  that  can  be  obtained  in  no 
other  way.  The  child  who  is  never  allowed  to  be  with  other 
children  is  deprived  of  a  valuable  birthright,  and  can  never  be 
quite  the  same  socially  as  he  would  have  been  had  he  associated 
fully  with  other  children.  A  child  may  be  better  in  some  ways 
and  learn  more  by  being  kept  with  adults,  but  never  can  his 
whole  nature  be  so  fully  developed. 

Chums  exercise  a  powerful  influence  over  each  other  where 
the  relation  is  continued  for  a  long  time,  and  this  more  or  less 
complete  sharing  of  life  with  another  is  a  valuable  experience. 
If,  however,  the  relation  is  long  continued,  and  is  so  close  that 
there  is  no  association  with  other  persons,  the  effect  is  narrowing, 
because  both  are  cut  off  from  a  wider  social  life.  Again,  if  one 
of  the  chums  is  always  the  leader  and  the  other  a  follower,  the 
results  are  unfortunate,  for  every  child  should  have  experience 
in  both  capacities  and  also  in  competition  with  friends  and  equals. 

(2)  Sympathy  is  closely  related  to,  and  probably,  to  some 
extent,  the  product  of,  reflex  imitation.  The  child  reflects  the 
emotional  expression  of  others,  and  as  a  result  feels  somewhat 
as  they  do.  Children,  therefore,  readily  cry  in  terror,  or  laugh 
with  glee,  when  those  around  them  do  so. 


152  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

Real  sympathy,  of  course,  appears  only  when  the  child  not 
only  feels  somewhat  as  others  do,  but  consciously  represents  them 
as  having  feeUngs  Hke  his  own.  This  is  Ukely  to  occur  in  the 
third  year.  When  the  idea  is  once  developed,  it  is  likely  to  be 
extended  not  only  to  persons,  but  to  animals,  flowers,  and  even 
sticks  and  stones.  The  young  child  does  not  clearly  distinguish 
himself  from  other  things ;  hence  his  mental  states  are  readily 
projected  into  them.  He  thinks  of  other  things  as  feeling  as  he 
does ;  hence  all  nature  seems  to  rejoice  or  weep  with  him.  When 
something  in  which  he  is  interested  is  injured,  he  also  feels  the 
injury  much  as  if  it  were  himself.  The  child  is  thus,  in  a  way, 
the  most  sympathetic  of  beings,  because  he  is  identified  with 
everything  that  he  knows.  He  begs  that  relief  may  be  given 
as  if  he  himself  were  the  sufferer,  as  indeed  he  is  to  a  considerable 
extent. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  interested  in  himself  and  his  own 
actions,  it  is  often  hard  to  get  him  to  think  of  any  one  else.  As 
he  gets  a  little  older,  and  distinguishes  more  clearly  between 
Ms  own  experiences  and  those  of  others,  the  individualistic  in- 
stinct takes  the  lead,  and  rarely  does  he  feel  an  impulse  to  take 
suffering  in  place  of  another. 

Again,  the  basis  of  a  child's  sympathy  is  his  own  experience ; 
hence  he  is  often  indifferent  to  the  deepest  joys  and  sorrows  of 
adults,  though  very  sympathetic  toward  those  who  are  annoyed 
by  what  is  to  him  a  cause  of  keen  suffering. 

In  order  to  have  sympathy  aroused,  one  must  not  only  have 
had  experience  of  the  kind  concerned,  but  his  imagination  must 
be  excited  so  that  he  puts  himself  in  the  place  of  the  sufferer. 
Boys  are  often  cruel,  not  because  they  wish  to  cause  suffering, 
but  merely  because  they  enjoy  seeing  the  victim  make  queer 
motions,  without  once  thinking  how  it  feels.  Sympathy,  there- 
fore, depends  not  only  upon  experience,  but  also  upon  the  im- 
agination. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  SOCIAL  INSTINCT     153 

(3)  Love  of  approbation  has  its  origin  in  the  race,  perhaps  in 
the  fact  that  approbation  of  mates  must  be  sought,  and  that  the 
animals  which  do  not  make  themselves  agreeable  to  the  group 
they  belong  in,  are  likely  to  be  driven  out  to  die.  At  any  rate, 
the  desire  for  approbation  is  very  strong  in  young  children,  even 
when  not  developed  by  experience.  The  tendency  to  reflect 
the  emotional  signs  and  feelings  of  others,  and  thus  to  share 
their  pleasure  or  disgust,  is  perhaps  the  basis  of  the  child's 
desire  to  be  looked  upon  with  favor. 

Even  before  a  child  can  talk,  he  seems  to  be  affected  by  words 
of  approval  or  disapproval,  if  they  are  uttered  in  the  appropriate 
tone  of  voice  and  with  the  fitting  gestures  and  expression  of  face. 
When  the  fighting  or  competitive  instinct  is  not  aroused,  the  child 
is  very  sensitive  to  expressions  of  approval  or  disapproval  from 
any  one  against  whom  he  feels  no  antagonism  at  the  moment. 
At  first  he  cares  most  for  approval  of  parents,  later  of  teachers, 
then  of  companions.  At  puberty  his  ambitions  are  stirred  and 
he  wishes  for  the  approval  not  merely  of  individuals,  but  for  that 
of  the  world;  in  other  words,  he  wishes  to  make  a  name  and 
become  famous.  In  middle  hfe  most  men  care  more  for  their 
reputation,  or,  in  other  words,  for  the  opinion  others  have  of 
them,  than  for  their  own  personal  needs  and  individualistic 
desires.  So  strong  is  this  instinct  that  what  we  eat,  wear,  read, 
and  do  are  largely  determined  by  it.  The  desire  for  approval 
never  dies  out,  even  in  the  breast  of  the  most  hardened  crimi- 
nal, who  is  often  a  hero  to  members  of  his  own  gang. 

Children  are  not  only  greatly  influenced  by  praise  and  blame ; 
but  they  act,  to  a  considerable  extent,  as  parents,  teachers,  and 
others  expect  them  to  act.  Children  thus  often  become  what 
their  teachers  believe  them  to  be,  and  many  a  boy  has  been  saved 
by  the  faith  reposed  in  him  by  teacher,  parent,  or  friend.  It 
is  therefore  very  important  that  educators  should  see  the  good 
in  children.    No  one  who  has  not  a  large  faith  in  humanity,  and 


154  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

in  the  possibilities  for  good  in  every  boy  and  girl,  should  ever 
enter  the  schoolroom  as  a  teacher. 

The  approval  of  companions  as  compared  with  that  of  parents 
and  teachers  gains  in  influence  with  advancing  years.  The 
approval  desired  is  not  merely  personal  approval  of  individuals, 
but  of  the  social  group  as  a  whole.  In  other  words,  the  child 
comes  to  have  more  and  more  regard  for  the  public  sentiment 
of  the  social  group  to  which  he  belongs.  After  a  few  years  in 
school  the  public  sentiment  of  a  group  of  boys,  as  expressed  in 
taunts,  such  as,  "girls'  work,"  or  "tied  to  mother's  apron  string," 
is  a  more  powerful  stimulus  than  the  words  or  even  the  blows  of 
the  parent  or  teacher. 

In  the  early  years  parents  and  primary  teachers  who  have  the 
love  of  their  children  may  get  them  to  do  almost  anything  by 
appealing  to  the  desire  for  personal  approval;  but  as  children  get 
older  they  care  more  and  more  for  the  public  sentiment  of  their 
social  group.  The  successful  grade  teacher  must  therefore  learn 
to  understand,  mold,  and  use  public  sentiment  in  governing 
her  school ;  while  the  high  school  teacher  must  do  the  same,  but 
may  also  rely  upon  the  general  principles  of  conduct  accepted  by 
the  world. 

(4)  Competition  and  cooperation,  although  in  some  respects 
opposed  to  each  other,  are  alike  supported  by  this  powerful 
tendency.  Doing  as  others  do  is  a  crude  form  of  imitation,  while 
the  sight  of  another  engaged  in  the  same  occupation  as  ourselves 
stimulates  to  more  vigorous  exertion.  Whether  a  given  situa- 
tion shall  result  in  rivalry  or  cooperation  depends  largely  upon 
whether  the  end  desired  can  apparently  best  be  gained  by  sur- 
passing others  or  by  supporting  their  efforts.  The  most  un- 
desirable form  of  rivalry  appears  when,  instead  of  endeavoring 
to  surpass  others,  one  attempts  to  interfere  with  their  success. 
This  is  allied  to  jealousy  and  is  more  prominent  in  those  who  are 
inferior  to  their  rivals  in  the  power  being  tested. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  SOCIAL  INSTINCT     155 

The  instinctive  character  of  the  competitive  instinct  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  competitors  in  a  race,  whether  they  be  horses 
or  men,  make  higher  records  than  when  running  alone.  For  this 
reason  records  of  paced  and  unpaced  races  are  kept  separately, 
the  former  always  being  more  swift. 

The  competitive  instinct  is  not  prominent  in  small  children, 
but  from  about  seven  years  of  age  until  near  maturity  its  power 
increases.  From  about  nine  years  on,  few  games  are  enjoyed 
that  have  not  in  them  an  element  of  competition  and  almost  any 
sort  of  work  may  become  a  game  if  rivalry  of  the  right  kind  and 
intensity  is  associated  with  it. 

Such  competition  is  naturally  at  first  individual,  one  person 
striving  to  beat  another ;  but  it  is  easy  to  so  arrange  the  contest 
that  a  group  shall  compete  as  a  whole  with  another  group. 
This  prepares  the  way  for  cooperation  and  almost  inevitably 
leads  to  it.  It  is  soon  found  that  success  can  best  be  obtained 
by  agreement  as  to  how  all  shall  act  or  what  parts  each  one  shall 
take.  A  common  end  to  be  gained  and  an  understanding  as 
to  the  part  that  each  shall  take  in  securing  it,  are  the  essentials 
in  all  cooperative  efforts.  If  cooperative  effort  is  directed  not 
so  much  toward  securing  the  end  as  in  preventing  the  other 
group  from  gaining  it,  something  like  war  results. 

(5)  Loyalty  and  altruism,  the  highest  forms  of  the  social  in- 
stinct, are  shown  in  the  tendency  to  act  for  the  good  of  the  social 
group  of  which  one  is  a  part,  instead  of  merely  seeking  their 
companionship,  feeling  as  they  do,  or  seeking  their  approval. 
This  tendency  appears  more  or  less  prominently  in  the  early 
teens. 

At  this  time,  when  the  youth  first  becomes  capable  of  con- 
tributing to  the  life  of  the  race,  and  of  actually  doing  something 
for  the  group  to  which  he  belongs,  his  ambitions  are  aroused, 
and  he  dreams  and  plans  for  great  deeds  and  great  honors.  The 
desire  for  approval  is  strong,  but  there  is  also  a  genuine  impulse 


156  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

to  self-sacrifice.  The  youth  of  all  ages  have  been  ready  to  risk 
life,  limb,  and  reputation,  not  chiefly  because  they  are  ignorant 
and  rash,  but  because  they  have  an  instinctive  tendency  to  dis- 
regard self  and  act  for  others. 

Youths  are  now  also  genuinely  selfish,  since  if  a  selfish  act  is 
done  at  this  time  it  may  be  in  opposition  to  an  altruistic  impulse, 
while  before  this  it  may  have  involved  only  a  choice  between 
immediate  and  remote  pleasure  to  self.  True  selfishness  emerges 
only  when  both  the  lower  individualistic  and  the  higher  altruistic 
impulses  are  felt.  The  adolescent  may  therefore  be  the  most 
selfish  or  the  most  self-sacrificing  of  beings,  and  is  often  each  by 
turns. 

The  development  of  the  impulse  to  social  service  is  greatly 
favored  by  experience  of  all  kinds  in  working  with  others  for 
common  ends.  In  such  activities  the  individual's  life  is  en- 
larged, and  in  contests  of  group  with  group  he  subordinates  his 
personal  interests  to  the  success  of  his  party,  thus  securing  the 
broader  pleasures  of  the  social  life. 

We  find,  then,  the  development  of  the  social  instinct  marked 
by  increased  regard  for  the  interests  of  others  and  for  law.  Laws 
come  to  mean  not  merely  the  rules  of  action  which  bring  to  the 
child  the  most  favorable  results,  but  standards  of  conduct  to  be 
conformed  to,  whether  agreeable  to  self  or  not,  because  they  are 
for  the  good  of  the  social  group.  This  tendency  is  shown  at 
the  beginning  of  the  teens,  in  class  spirit  in  the  school,  in  group 
games  on  the  playground,  in  children's  societies,  and  in  the  forma- 
tion of  gangs  on  the  streets.  Rivalry  of  group  with  group  may 
be  even  more  fierce  than  ever  was  individual  rivalry  at  the  height 
of  the  individuahstic  stage  of  development.  The  greater  the 
rivalry,  however,  between  groups,  the  greater  the  class  spirit 
within  the  groups. 

The  social  group,  whose  interests  are  regarded  and  promoted 
sometimes  by  self-sacrifice,  is  at  first  very  small.    Only  slowly 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   SOCIAL  INSTINCT     157 

does  the  social  impulse  broaden  into  general  philanthropy  and 
feeling  of  human  brotherhood.  Class  spirit  is  a  phase  of  social 
development  that  needs  to  appear  in  a  radical  form  and  in  con- 
nection with  rivalry  as  a  preparation  for  the  higher  phases  of 
social  development.  It  should  therefore  be  encouraged,  but  care 
should  be  taken  that  there  shall  be  frequent  change  and  en- 
largement of  the  social  groups  engaged,  otherwise  there  is  arrest 
of  development,  narrow  prejudice,  and  partisanship,  rather  than 
broad  sympathy  and  philanthropic  effort. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Give  illustrations  showing  the  strength  of  the  gregarious  instinct  in 
adults,  children,  and  animals.  Report  instances  of  showing  off  and  shy- 
ness, as  illustrations  of  the  social  instinct  in  children. 

2.  Give  examples  showing  desire  for  companionship  with  those  of  one's 
own  age,  and  the  advantages  of  such  companionship. 

3.  Describe  one  or  more  instances  of  chumming  you  have  known,  and 
the  effects  upon  each  of  the  chmns. 

4.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  leader?  Should  every  child  have 
some  experience  as  a  leader  ?     How  may  he  get  it  ? 

5.  What  kind  of  chums  do  children  desire?  Report  observations  or 
reading. 

6.  Does  being  an  only  child,  or  the  eldest  or  youngest  of  the  family, 
have  any  special  influence  on  development  ?    What  ? 

7.  Describe  instances  of  sympathy  on  the  part  of  children. 

8.  Show  that  experience  and  imagination  are  necessary  to  sympathy. 

9.  Show  how  large  a  part  love  of  approbation  plays  in  social  life  and 
morals. 

10.  Show  how  the  teacher  may  utilize  the  love  of  approbation  of  children. 

11.  In  what  grades  has  personal  approval  most  influence?     In  what 
grades  is  pubUc  sentiment  more  potent  ? 

12.  Discuss  the  kinds  and  degrees  of  self-government  that  may  best  be 
used  at  different  ages. 

13.  Illustrate  the  prominence  of  altruistic  ideals  in  the  teens  from  experi- 
ment or  observation. 

14.  Discuss  the  social  value,  to  yourself  and  others,  of  membership  in 
societies  of  various  kinds  to  which  you  or  they  have  belonged. 


iss 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 


Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  boys'  clubs  and  other  social  activities  of  childhood,  see  Sheldon,  Am. 
Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  425-448 ;  Forbush,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VII,  pp. 
307-346 ;  The  Boy  Problem,  chaps,  ii  and  iii ;  Buck,  Boys'  Self -Governing 
Clubs;  Riis,  Children  of  the  Poor,  chap,  xiii ;  Gladden,  "  The  Junior 
RepubUc  at  Freeville,"  Outlook,  Oct.  31,  1896 ;  Shaw,  "  Vacation  Camps 
and  Boy  Republics,"  Rev.  of  Rev.,  May,  1896 ;  Johnson,  "  Rudimentary 
Society  Among  Boys,"  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Studies,  republished  in 
Teachers  College  Record,  May,  1901,  pp.  91-94. 

On  chums,  see  Bonser,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  221-236 ;  and  on  leadership, 
Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  295-297,  and  on  only  child,  see  Bohan- 
non,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  475-496. 

On  social  ideals  and  attitude  toward  law,  see  Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol,  I. 
pp.  213-216,  254-258,  259-263,  Vol.  II,  pp.  5-30,  37-40,  123-140,  141- 
150,  203-217,  218-230;  Sully,  Studies  in  Childhood,  chap,  viii;  Scott, 
Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  153-162. 

On  the  development  of  the  social  consciousness  and  social  training,  read 
Monroe,  N.  E.  A.,  1898,  pp.  921-928,  or  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  31- 
36 ;  Boone,  Ed.,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  395-401,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  83-89,  270- 
276,  617-621 ;  Wiggin,  Children's  Rights,  pp.  109-138,  171-186. 

On  pity  and  sympathy  and  other  social  feelings,  see  Hall  and  Saunders,  Am. 
Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  534-591,  and  Ribot,  Psychology  of  Emotions, 
pp.  230-234,  Baldwin,  Vol.  II,  pp.  220-246,  Tracy,  pp.  55-59.  See 
also  Hugh  on  "  Animism  of  Children,"  iV.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  450- 
453,  Vol.  X,  pp.  71-74;  Hall  and  Smith,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  159- 
199 ;  Jones,  Psych.  Rev.  Supple.,  Vol.  V,  No.  5 ;  Washburn,  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.,  VoL  XIV,  pp.  77-78. 


Later  References 

Books 

Belts 

Kirkpatrick  (2,  4,  &  5) 

Puffer 

Brinton 

Krebs 

Scott,  Colon 

Cooley 

March 

Simmer 

Dunn 

McDougall 

Swift 

George 

Montessori 

Thomdike 

King  (2 

&3) 

O'Shea  (2) 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  SOCIAL  INSTINCT     159 

Articles 

Boland,  Genevieve.  Taking  a  Dare.  Ped.  Sem.,  1910,  Vol.  17,  pp. 
510-524. 

Hartson,  Louis  D.  The  Psychology  of  the  Club,  A  Study  in  Social  Psy- 
chology.   Ped.  Sem.,  1911,  Vol.  18,  pp.  353-414. 

Kaylor,  M.  A.  Feelings,  Thought  and  Conduct  of  Children  toward  Ani- 
mal Pets.     Ped.  Sem.,  1909,  Vol.  16,  pp.  205-239. 

Ordahl,  Geo.  Rivalry,  Its  Genetic  Development  and  Pedagogy.  Ped. 
Sem.,  1908,  Vol.  15,  pp.  492-549- 

Terman,  Lewis.  A  Preliminary  Study  in  the  Psychology  and  Pedagogy 
of  Leadership.    Ped.  Sem.,  1904,  Vol.  11,  pp.  413-451. 


CHAPTER  X 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  IMITATION 
CHARACTERISTICS   OF   IMITATION   IN   CHILDREN 

In  general,  we  think  of  acts  as  imitative  when  they  reproduce 
acts  that  have  been  observed  by  the  performer.  The  psycho- 
logical basis  of  imitation  is  the  general  tendency  for  the  percep- 
tion or  image  of  an  action  to  produce  a  similar  action.  Imitation 
is  a  form  of  suggestion  in  which  the  suggesting  stimulus  is  re- 
produced. 

If  a  hungry  child  begins  eating  when  he  sees  some  one  else 
eating,  the  act  is  not  properly  imitative,  for  the  child  knows  what 
eating  is,  how  to  eat,  and  has  a  tendency  to  eat ;  while  the  sight 
of  some  one  else  eating  does  nothing  but  suggest  the  idea,  which 
would  probably  be  aroused  just  as  effectually  by  the  sight  of 
food  or  even  by  the  utterance  of  the  word  "dinner"  or  the  sound 
of  the  dinner  bell.  If,  however,  a  child  tries  to  eat  like  some  one 
else,  the  mode  of  eating  is  imitative  because  the  idea  of  how  to 
act  is  gotten  from  the  observation  of  the  act.  If  a  child  eats 
when  not  hungry,  or  eats  something  he  does  not  like  because  he 
sees  another  eating,  the  act  is  clearly  imitative,  because  the  im- 
pulse to  perform  it  results  from  observing  its  performance. 
When  a  child  makes  a  new  sound  that  he  has  heard,  or  tries  to 
pack  a  trunk  after  seeing  for  the  first  time  some  one  else  do  it, 
the  act  is  imitative  in  a  greater  degree  than  in  the  preceding 
instance ;  for  the  idea  of  the  act,  how  to  do  it,  and  the  impulse 
to  perform  it  are  all  the  result  of  observing  its  performance. 

Many  of  the  child's  acts  are  imitative  in  this  sense,  but  it  is 

i6o 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  IMITATION    i6i 

doubtful  whether  this  is  true  of  many  animals.  Chickens,  cats, 
rats,  and  dogs  may  run  toward  food  or  away  from  danger,  or 
begin  searching  for  food  at  sight  of  companions  doing  the  same, 
or  make  noises  in  response  to  noises  made  by  their  kind,  and 
such  acts  are  often  called  imitative ;  but  the  animals  know  how 
to  do  these  things  and  have  a  tendency  to  do  them,  and  per- 
ceiving them  done  by  another  merely  suggests  the  idea  without 
modifying  its  form  or  giving  it  much  impulsive  force.  A  few 
cases,  however,  of  fairly  definite  acts  of  imitation  are  reported 
by  some  experimenters  with  monkeys  and  other  mammals. 

Children,  however,  have  a  strong  tendency  to  observe  and  per- 
form new  acts ;  hence,  imitation  is  an  important  means  of  widen- 
ing their  experience  and  fitting  them  for  various  activities  and 
conditions.  In  most  animals  imitation  does  little  more  than 
specialize  and  develop  tendencies  already  possessed  in  some 
degree,  in  ways  that  will  favor  survival;  while  in  children  it 
leads  to  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  action  and  adaptation  to 
varying  conditions.  As  already  mentioned,  imitation  is  the  mode 
of  learning  most  used  by  children  in  getting  acquainted  with 
the  world  in  which  they  live. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF  IMITATIVE  ACTS  OF  CHILDREN 

(i)  Reflex  imitation  is  shown  when  a  child  is  caused  to  do 
something  which  he  has  a  physiological  tendency  to  do,  by  per- 
ceiving the  act  performed  by  another.  Yawning,  crying,  laugh- 
ing, and  other  emotional  expressions,  which  may  be  reproduced 
by  children  in  the  first  half  year,  are  of  this  class.  The  stimulus 
to  reflex  imitation  is  largely  sensory. 

(2)  Spontaneous  imitation  is  shown  when  acts  not  provided 
for  by  other  instincts  are  reproduced  without  any  purpose  other 
than  the  all-sufiicient  and  unconscious  one  of  an  impulse  to  re- 
produce and  to  experience  subjectively  what  has  been  observed 
objectively.    The  stimulus  is  usually  a  perception  of  some  kind. 


l62  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Everything,  from  the  crowing  of  chickens  to  the  whistle  of  a 
locomotive,  from  the  wriggling  of  a  snake  to  the  preaching  of  a 
sermon,  is  imitated.  Nothing  in  his  environment,  physical  or 
social,  escapes  the  child ;  he  absorbs  and  makes  it  all  a  part  of 
himself  by  reproducing,  and  thus  getting  a  subjective  knowledge 
of  it.    For  three  or  four  years  this  form  of  the  instinct  is  dominant. 

(3)  Dramatic  imitation  is  closely  allied  to  the  spontaneous, 
and  differs  from  it  chiefly  in  that  the  child  now  finds  his  own 
mode  of  reproducing  or  representing  ideas.  Images  of  previous 
perceptions  are  the  usual  stimuli.  As  in  spontaneous  imitation, 
there  is  no  purpose  outside  of  the  act  itself.  Things  heard  or 
read,  as  well  as  those  observed,  are  imitated ;  but  the  reproduc- 
tions are  not  literal.  Persons,  animals,  stones,  and  blocks  are 
transformed  in  various  ways  by  the  imagination,  and  made  to 
aid  in  the  representations.  Symbols  and  images  thus  take  the 
place  of  real  personalities  and  acts. 

(4)  Voluntary  imitation  or  imitation  for  a  purpose  appears 
when  a  child  reproduces  an  act,  not  for  its  own  sake,  but  to  gain 
some  end,  as  when  a  child  imitates  a  word  he  has  heard,  not  for 
the  pleasure  of  the  act,  but  in  order  to  get  what  he  wants,  or  tries 
to  walk  like  some  one  else  to  make  people  laugh,  or  tries  to  handle 
a  spoon  or  pencil  as  some  one  else  does,  in  order  that  he  may 
eat  or  write  successfully.  This  form  of  imitation  is  concerned 
merely  with  how  to  imitate  or  represent  when  such  an  act  is  a 
means  to  an  end.  The  impulse  depends  upon  the  end  to  be 
gained,  and  not  upon  the  mere  perception  of  the  act.  Voluntary 
imitation  is  always  more  or  less  analytic  and  synthetic,  attention 
being  directed  to  the  parts  of  the  process,  and  to  the  order  of 
combination  or  synthesis.  Memory  images  are  the  guides  in 
voluntary  imitation.  When  a  child  imitates  spontaneously  the 
act  of  writing,  he  simply  takes  the  pencil  and  scratches  around 
with  it ;  but  when  he  voluntarily  imitates  the  drawing  of  another, 
he  watches  his  successive  movements  and  tries  to  reproduce  them. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  IMITATION    163 

Voluntary  imitation  is  a  different  act  from  spontaneous  imi- 
tation, as  was  most  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  case  of  a  child 
who,  before  the  close  of  the  first  year,  reproduced  with  phono- 
graphic exactness  every  word  she  heard;  but  later,  when  she 
tried  to  use  words  voluntarily  as  a  means  of  expressing  thought, 
she  went  through  the  usual  stages  of  mispronunciation.  Not 
often  is  this  so  marked ;  but  every  observer  of  children  knows 
that  children  who  spontaneously  imitate  the  tones  of  those  they 
hear  speak  and  read,  often  find  it  difficult  or  impossible  to  do 
so  voluntarily  in  response  to  a  request.  Every  one  can  laugh 
or  cry  spontaneously,  but  few  can  do  so  voluntarily. 

(5)  Idealistic  imitation  is  that  form  of  imitation  in  which  there 
is  an  attempt  to  act  according  to  a  copy  or  standard  conceived 
as  correct  and  desirable.  It  leads  to  and  is  guided  by  concepts 
adopted  as  ideals.  It  is  an  attempt,  not  to  reproduce  or  represent 
any  one  act  or  object,  but  to  act  in  accordance  with  an  ideal 
derived  from  numerous  particulars.  Such  ideals,  whether  social, 
aesthetic,  moral,  or  religious,  are  naturally  formed  and  imitated, 
not  from  a  study  of  their  verbal  expression  in  the  form  of  general 
truths,  but  as  shown  in  concrete  acts  and  objects. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  IMITATION 

The  different  varieties  of  imitation  combine  and  overlap  so 
that  detailed  and  exact  statements  caimot  be  made;  but  the 
general  order  of  prominence  is  evidently  that  in  which  they  have 
been  named. 

(i)  Reflex  imitation  is  the  only  form  of  imitation  imtil  the 
second  half  of  the  first  year.  Later  it  is  obscured,  but  remains 
all  through  life  as  an  important  form  of  suggestion.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  good  humor  and  bad  humor,  politeness  and 
rudeness,  carefulness  and  carelessness,  are  "catching."  All 
persons,  but  especially  children,  are  like  mirrors  reflecting  back 
what  they  observe,  responding  to  smiles  with  smiles,  and  to 


l64  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

irritable  words  with  similar  words  and  actions.  The  personality 
and  mood  of  each  person  is  manifested  in  some  degree  in  his 
face,  voice,  and  actions,  and  the  child  reproduces  refiexly  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  every  such  manifestation,  and  is  himself 
modified  by  it.  If  several  children  are  together,  each  acts 
refiexly  on  the  others.  The  teacher  who  comes  into  the  room  in 
the  morning  in  an  irritable  mood  soon  infects  some  of  her  chil- 
dren, and  these  others.  She  is  therefore  confronted  ere  long  by  an 
irritable  and  irritating  school ;  while  the  teacher  who  has  entered 
the  room  with  cheerful  good  humor  and  kindly  feeling  is  soon 
surrounded  by  a  joyous  group  of  children  eager  to  follow  her 
leading  and  respond  pleasantly  to  her  slightest  suggestion. 

(2)  Spontaneous  imitation  usually  becomes  very  prominent 
the  latter  part  of  the  first  year.  Although  concerned  with  new 
acquisitions,  reflex  imitation  is  often  combined  with  it,  as  when 
the  tone  in  which  a  new  word  is  uttered  is  reproduced  as  well 
as  its  pronunciation.  In  fact,  the  early  imitations  of  words  are 
often  merely  imitations  of  tones  and  inflections  of  voice  rather 
than  of  specific  sounds.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  early  de- 
velopment of  reflex  emotional  expression. 

Sometimes  the  early  spontaneous  imitations  are  of  single 
sounds  and  gestures,  and  sometimes  of  more  complex  acts.  The 
author's  little  girl  imitated  acts  at  first,  as  poking  the  fire, 
packing  a  box,  driving  a  nail,  but  never  gestures,  such  as  raising 
the  hand,  nodding  the  head.  Neither  did  she  imitate  words 
as  such,  but  only  the  act  of  speaking  on  occasion.  Children 
do,  however,  frequently  reproduce  sounds  like  a  phonograph, 
and  gestures,  like  a  shadow,  sometimes  without  ceasing  their 
play  to  do  so.  In  no  case  is  spontaneous  imitation  analytic 
and  synthetic.    It  is  always  of  wholes,  large  or  small. 

The  value  of  spontaneous  imitation  lies  in  the  great  amount 
of  material  accumulated  in  the  form  of  knowledge  and  power  of 
movement,  which  may  be  used  or  analyzed  and  combined,  then 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  IMITATION     165 

used  in  future  actions  for  a  purpose.  The  knowledge  thus  ac- 
quired is  of  immense  extent  and  of  the  most  fundamental  charac- 
ter, for  it  is  subjective  as  well  as  objective.  The  child  learns  to 
know  movements  and  sounds  not  only  as  they  are  seen  and  heard, 
but  also  as  they  are  felt  when  performed  or  uttered,  and  he  can 
not  only  recognize  them,  but  also  control  them.  Thus  by 
spontaneous  imitation  he  makes  the  world  his  own  and  obtains 
control  of  it. 

Although  so  various,  spontaneous  imitations  are  not  the  result 
of  chance.  Nothing  is  imitated  that  does  not  attract  the  at- 
tention. Attention  is  determined  by  the  prominent  instincts 
or  experiences  as  they  appear  in  the  life  of  the  developing  child ; 
hence,  the  spontaneous  imitations  of  each  age  are  indications  of 
the  stage  of  development  that  has  been  reached.  The  investi- 
gations of  Frear  indicate  that  young  children  spontaneously 
imitate  animals  and  children,  while  in  the  majority  of  cases 
older  children  voluntarily  imitate  older  persons. 

At  about  three  years  of  age  contrary  suggestion  often  appears, 
and,  at  more  or  less  frequent  intervals,  controls  the  child's  action. 
The  child  seems  to  be  surfeited  with  taking  into  himself  and  re- 
producing from  his  surroundings.  He  therefore  asserts  his  own 
individuality,  which  has  heretofore  been  merged  in  whatever  he 
imitated,  and  refuses  to  follow  the  copy  set  before  him.  He  not 
only  refuses  to  do  what  others  do,  and  what  it  is  suggested  that 
he  shall  do,  but  as  far  as  possible  does  just  the  opposite  of  what 
the  imitative  impulse  would  impel  him  to  do.  Usually  these 
attacks  are  intermittent ;  but  if  unsuccessful  attempts  are  made 
to  forcibly  suppress  them,  they  may  become  chronic,  especially 
if  the  child  is  not  in  perfect  health.  If  no  notice  is  taken  of  such 
attacks  of  contrary  suggestion  or  self-assertion,  or  if  they  are 
vigorously  suppressed  instead  of  combated  just  enough  to  de- 
velop them,  they  are  likely  to  soon  yield  to  the  more  fundamental 
impulse  of  positive  suggestion  or  imitation. 


1 66  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Spontaneous  imitation  develops  not  only  by  becoming  more 
complete,  and  being  concerned  with  more  complex  acts,  but  by 
appearing  in  response  to  mental  images  as  well  as  to  direct  per- 
ceptions. Words,  gestures,  and  processes  observed  yesterday  are 
reproduced  to-day  as  spontaneously  and  accurately  as  if  just 
perceived. 

(3)  When  the  above  stage  of  spontaneous  imitation  is  reached, 
dramatic  imitation  usually  begins.  Dramatic  imitations  are  not 
clearly  differentiated  in  the  mind  of  the  child,  or  easily  distin- 
guished by  the  adult  observer  from  spontaneous  imitations.  In 
purely  spontaneous  imitation  the  child  reproduces  literally,  as 
well  as  he  can,  what  he  has  observed,  while  in  dramatic  imitation 
he  does  not.  Sometimes,  however,  he  forgets  that  he  is  only 
making  believe,  and  screams  with  terror  at  the  attacks  of  a  make- 
believe  bear  or  weeps  over  the  mishaps  of  the  make-believe  baby 
or  kitty,  or  actually  chews  the  make-believe  bread,  or  is  really 
worried  by  the  idea  that  he  is  going  to  be  left  by  the  imaginary 
car,  or  cries  with  the  pain  of  an  imaginary  burn  or  stomach 
ache.  Usually,  however,  there  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  under  con- 
sciousness of  the  make-believe  character  of  it  all,  which,  as  long  as 
it  remains,  heightens  the  pleasure  of  trying  to  make  it  seem  real. 

Dramatic  imitation  greatly  increases  the  possibilities  of  varied 
development,  for  much  of  what  the  child  observes  or  hears  in- 
volves actions  or  objects  unattainable  to  him.  There  is  nothing, 
however,  from  the  noises  and  movements  of  a  locomotive  to  the 
silent  art  of  Jack  Frost,  or  from  making  a  pie  to  constructing  a 
church,  from  burglary  to  a  fashionable  tea  party,  that  the  child 
cannot  imitate  by  the  use  of  make-believe  objects  and  symbohc 
movements.  The  essentials  of  every  process  and  action  in  the 
heavens  above  and  the  earth  beneath,  of  which  the  child  sees  or 
hears,  are  made  familiar  to  him  in  his  dramatic  imitations.  He 
learns  something  of  every  custom  of  society,  and  every  trade 
and  profession,  by  the  short-cut  application  of  that  most  im- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  IMITATION    167 

portant  of  all  pedagogical  laws,  "learning  to  do  by  doing," 
which  is  also  the  only  sure  way  of  learning  to  understand. 

What  a  change  would  result  if  this  dramatic  power  and  tend- 
ency to  imitation  could  be  more  frequently,  sensibly,  and  effec- 
tually utilized  in  the  kindergarten  and  school.  In  its  very 
nature,  dramatic  imitation  is  spontaneous  and  original;  hence 
any  attempt  at  systematic  control  of  it  must,  in  the  nature  of 
the  case,  almost  inevitably  prove  artificial  and  ineffective.  The 
wise  teacher  merely  stirs  the  imagination,  supplies  the  material 
for  dramatic  representation,  and  gives  occasional  suggestions  as 
they  are  needed.  For  example,  some  sixth-grade  children,  who 
were  taught  geography  in  such  a  way  that  with  very  little  help 
and  suggestion  they  eagerly  presented  in  character  the  different 
races,  in  costumes  which  they  had  made,  gained  more  of  real 
development  than  in  a  term  of  formal  memorizing. 

Froebel  did  well  to  recognize  the  dramatic  tendency  in  children ; 
but  his  followers  have  often  done  ill  in  using  the  particular 
processes  and  occupations  given  by  him,  at  stated  times,  instead 
of  those  most  common  and  interesting  in  the  child's  environment, 
presented  at  the  most  favorable  times. 

The  dramatic  tendency  usually  begins  in  the  third  year  and 
continues  all  through  life,  but  is  at  its  climax  from  about  four  to 
seven.  During  this  time  the  child  not  only  transforms  objects, 
but  persons,  including  himself,  into  whatever  his  fancy  dictates 
or  his  dramatic  play  demands.  He  assumes  the  part  of  some 
other  person,  or  of  an  animal,  and  perhaps  for  days  at  a  time 
acts  out  the  character  to  some  extent,  and  insists  upon  being 
called  by  the  name  of  the  person  or  animal  represented.  So 
great  is  the  tendency  to  represent  by  substitution,  that  even 
words  are  made  to  serve  new  purposes,  as  "yes"  to  mean  "no." 
Sometimes  the  child  at  once  forgets  the  arrangement  he  has 
made ;  then  again  he  adheres  to  it  for  days  or  weeks,  and  insists 
that  others  do  so. 


1 68  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

This  is  the  age  also  for  the  creation  of  imaginary  companions, 
and  a  careful  study  of  the  matter  shows  that  not  only  do  a  few 
lonely  and  highly  imaginative  children  have  these  companions, 
but  nearly  all  children  have  them  in  some  form,  for  a  greater  or 
less  period  of  time.  It  is  only  one  step  from  representing  persons 
by  blocks  to  representing  them  in  the  mind  without  any  tan- 
gible object.  These  imaginary  companions  frequently  appear  in 
the  third  year  when  the  child  is  getting  acquainted  with  his  own 
variable  personality,  which  is  sometimes  "nice"  and  sometimes 
"naughty,"  or  in  connection  with  early  experiences  with  a  play- 
mate who  is  not  present  all  of  the  time,  or  after  hearing  of  a 
little  boy  or  girl  of  a  certain  character.  Sometimes  the  imagi- 
nary companion  is  an  ideal  self,  sometimes  a  naughty  scapegrace, 
and  at  other  times  not  self  at  all,  but  a  distinct  personality. 
The  same  child  may  have  many  such  companions  at  once,  or 
one  at  a  time  in  succession.  Where  the  phenomenon  continues, 
as  it  sometimes  does,  into  adult  life,  it  often  takes  the  form  of  a 
continued  story,  in  which  the  imaginary  characters  figure,  and 
perhaps  grow  older  as  their  creator  does. 

Curiously  enough,  during  this  make-believe  age,  the  child  is 
the  most  literal  of  beings  as  well  as  the  most  imaginative.  Left 
to  himself,  he  often  has  a  wonderful  perception  of  the  essential 
truths  symbolized;  but  when  something  is  presented  to  him 
in  symbolic  form,  and  he  has  no  experience  corresponding  to 
that  symbohzed,  his  ideas  are  surprisingly  literal  and  material- 
istic. For  this  reason  religious  instruction  often  produces  in  the 
child's  mind  a  gross  caricature  of  holy  things.  For  example, 
a  boy  did  not  want  to  be  Jesus'  "httle  lamb,"  because  he  would 
then  have  to  eat  grass.  Myths  and  fairy  stories  also  often  fail 
to  teach  the  truth  intended,  because  the  truths  symbolized  are 
not  apprehended  by  the  child. 

(4)  Voluntary  imitation  appears  in  the  second  or  third  year, 
but  does  not  become  prominent  for  several  years.     When  a 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  IMITATION    169 

child,  instead  of  freely  repeating  over  and  over  the  same  sound 
in  the  same  way,  tries  again  and  again  to  speak  a  word  as  another 
does,  each  time  changing  his  pronunciation  a  little  and  getting 
nearer  the  correct  form,  we  have  an  example  of  voluntary  imita- 
tion, because  it  is  performed,  not  for  the  pleasure  of  the  act, 
but  to  secure  the  approval  that  follows  its  successful  perform- 
ance, or  the  pleasure  of  being  understood.  Since,  as  we  have 
defined  it,  voluntary  imitation  is  for  a  purpose,  it  is  concerned 
chiefly  with  the  mode  of  performance. 

Whenever  a  child  is  trying  to  find  out  how  to  do  an  act,  he  is 
very  ready  to  voluntarily  imitate  any  mode  of  performing  it 
that  he  sees.  It  is  also  much  easier  for  a  child  to  imitate  the 
performance  of  an  act  than  it  is  to  form  an  idea  from  a  descrip- 
tion of  how  it  is  to  be  done  and  then  do  it.  Voluntary  imita- 
tion is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  important  means  of  instruction, 
especially  with  young  children.  They  can  learn  by  watching 
how  a  thing  is  done,  in  a  fourth  the  time  required  to  learn  it  by 
being  told  how  it  should  be  done.  This  is  true  not  only  of 
manual,  but  also  of  purely  intellectual  processes.  A  child  learns 
to  add  or  to  use  good  language  by  imitation  better  than  by  rule. 
Imitation  might,  therefore,  very  frequently  be  substituted  for 
directions  and  rules.  W^ith  younger  children  the  imitation 
should  be  largely  spontaneous,  while  with  older  ones  it  should 
be  voluntary,  and  with  still  older  children  should  be  followed 
by  analysis  leading  to  specific  directions  or  rules.  Where  the 
process  is  complex,  some  analysis  is  helpful  in  learning  it;  but 
the  analysis  should  be  simply  into  parts  or  simpler  wholes  which 
the  child  can  grasp,  rather  than  into  separate  elements  such  as 
the  scientist  is  able  to  detect.  Most  of  the  practice  should 
also  be  upon  the  whole  process  rather  than  upon  the  elements. 

In  using  voluntary  imitation  educationally  it  is  not  best  to 
merely  give  models  for  imitation.  On  the  contrary,  voluntary 
imitation  should  be  simply  a  means  of  accomplishing  successfully 


lyo  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

something  which  the  child  already  has  a  desire  to  perform. 
The  great  defect  in  teaching  has  been  too  much  analysis  of  pro- 
cesses into  elements,  and  too  wide  a  separation  of  processes  from 
the  ends  they  are  fitted  to  secure,  so  that  the  natural  motives  for 
learning  are  destroyed. 

Unquestionably  it  is  the  function  of  the  school  in  preparing 
the  child  for  the  work  of  life  to  develop  the  power  of  voluntary 
effort,  and  this  means  at  first  chiefly  the  power  of  voluntary 
imitation;  but  it  does  not  follow  that  spontaneous  imitation 
should  not  be  utilized,  or  that  the  child  should  be  required  to 
voluntarily  imitate  what  he  has,  as  yet,  no  motive  for  learning 
to  do.  The  child  acquires  the  power  and  tendency  to  persistent 
effort  by  the  act  of  persisting  in  what  he  attempts ;  and  if  he  can 
be  held  to  a  task  by  the  desire  to  learn  how,  in  order  that  he  may 
do  something  which  he  wishes  to  do,  the  motive  is  a  natural 
one  and  far  more  effective  than  those  arising  from  artificial 
punishments  or  rewards. 

(5)  Idealistic  imitation,  which  is  a  sort  of  generalization  from 
all  other  kinds,  begins  perhaps  in  the  third  or  fourth  year  when 
a  child  has  formed  some  idea  of  objects  and  acts  that  are  ''pretty  " 
or  "nice."  A  Uttle  girl  of  four  who  admired  a  httle  girl  in  a 
story  who  always  walked  and  talked  quietly  and  nicely,  imitated 
her  and  apparently  thought  of  her  as  an  ideal.  In  a  similar 
way,  a  boy  of  three  seemed  to  have  a  pretty  good  idea  of  "  Papa's 
Jolly  Boy,"  and  sometimes  when  not  feeling  well  made  con- 
siderable effort  to  smile  and  look  pleasant  under  the  inspiration 
of  that  ideal.  Such  idealistic  imitation  is,  however,  largely  a 
matter  of  training  till  the  teens  are  reached. 

Spontaneous  imitation  leads  the  child  to  imitate  everything 
which  attracts  his  notice,  whether  profanity  or  prayer,  caresses 
or  cruelty,  rudeness  or  politeness.  There  is  little  or  no  selec- 
tion of  the  more  admirable  for  imitation  except  as  it  is  presented 
more  often  or  made  attractive  by  the  approval,  cooperation,  or 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  IMITATION    171 

help  of  others.  In  the  home,  at  school,  and  on  the  playground 
some  selection  of  ideals,  leading  to  their  imitation,  is  brought 
about  by  the  attitude  and  actions  of  parents,  teachers,  and 
companions;  but  for  the  most  part  children  imitate  certain 
ideals  of  conduct  not  so  much  because  the  ideal  itself  appeals 
to  them,  as  because  adherence  to  it  secures  the  approbation  of 
others,  and  ignoring  it,  their  disapproval  and  perhaps  punish- 
ment. These  ideals  are  built  up  and  strengthened  by  stories  of 
persons  performing  admirable  actions  and  receiving  praise  and 
reward,  and  of  the  opposite  results  from  the  performance  of  bad 
actions.  The  ideals  admired  and  imitated  by  the  child  are  not 
his  own,  but  those  of  his  people  and  his  times. 

This  remains  true,  in  large  measure,  till  the  child  reaches  his 
teens,  when  he  begins  to  find  that  within  himself  which  responds 
with  admiration  or  disgust,  to  certain  deeds,  acts,  and  objects. 
It  is  no  longer  merely  his  own  interests  or  the  opinion  of  others 
which  arouse  the  feelings,  but  something  within  himself  that 
reaches  out  toward  or  draws  back  from  certain  objects  and  acts, 
regardless  of  consequence. 

This  is  emphatically  the  age  of  ideals  and  of  hero-worship. 
Now,  if  ever,  the  individual  is  stirred  by  ideals  of  the  strong  and 
true,  the  beautiful  and  the  good.  Spontaneous  imitation,  and 
past  and  present  example  and  training,  still  have  their  influence 
upon  the  selection  of  ideals  for  imitation,  but  not,  as  formerly, 
entire  control.  In  this  stage  of  ferment  and  change  from  which 
is  to  emerge  a  more  or  less  unified  and  permanent  individuality, 
there  is  developed  an  inner  principle  of  selection  which  results 
in  the  formation  of  ideals  for  imitation.  There  is  not  a  mere 
selection,  as  formerly,  of  certain  objects,  persons,  and  acts  for 
imitation,  but  a  choosing  from  various  sources,  of  qualities 
which  appeal  to  the  individual,  and  a  combination  of  these  into 
standards  and  rules  of  conduct. 

Often  the  youth  forms  ideals  without  at  once  imitating  them. 


172  FUNDAMENT.\LS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

He  feels  their  worth,  but  has  not  the  force  of  will  to  realize  them 
in  his  acts.  Usually,  after  a  period  of  variable  action,  the  ideals 
or  the  habits  are  modified  so  as  to  bring  them  more  nearly  into 
harmony,  and  the  character  of  the  developing  man  is  pretty 
firmly  established  at  a  higher  or  lower  level,  according  to  the 
kind  of  ideals  formed  and  imitated.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
gulf  between  approved  ideals  and  practice  results  in  a  p>ermanent 
di\ision  of  personality,  in  which  one  phase  of  it,  then  the  other, 
dominates,  as  in  "Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde."  This  condition 
is  much  more  likely  to  result  when  children  have  either  been  led 
to  form  high  ideals  without  being  induced  to  imitate  them,  or 
when  they  have  been  comp>elled  to  act  according  to  certain 
standards  which  they  have  not  been  led  to  approve.  If  the  child 
has  learned  to  both  admire  and  imitate  his  ideals,  and  if  these 
ideals  are  merely  deep)ened  and  broadened  but  not  fimdamen- 
tally  changed  during  the  transition  p>eriod,  then  there  is  no 
break  in  the  development ;  but  the  new  element  which  comes 
into  the  youth's  life  merely  p>erfects  and  completes  what  was 
begun  before  the  age  of  transition. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Describe  instances  of  imitation  and  indicate  in  each  case  how  far 
perception  of  what  is  imitated  gives  any  or  all  of  these :  (i)  the  idea  of  the 
act ;  (2)  knowledge  of  how  to  do  it ;  (3)  the  impulse  to  perform  it. 

2.  Give  examples  of  imitation  in  animals  and  compare  with  imitations 
of  children,  showing  the  difference. 

3.  Show  how  imitations  by  children  lead  to  many  adaptations,  or,  in 
other  words,  to  the  gaining  of  much  valuable  knowledge  and  experience. 

4.  Give  original  illustrations  of  each  class  of  imitations. 

5.  State  the  order  and  the  ages  at  which  the  different  kinds  of  imitation 
become  prominent. 

6.  Show  the  importance  of  reflex  imitation  in  school.  Is  there  any  rea- 
son for  objecting  to  the  presence  of  stammering  or  nervous  children  in 
school?  Can  a  noisy,  imsystematic  teacher  teach  children  to  be  quiet  and 
orderly?    Why? 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVT  INSTINCTS  —  IMITATION     173 

7.  Show  how  spontaneotis  imitation  prepares  for  the  doing  of  useful  acts 
in  the  future. 

8.  Give  illustrations  of  contrariness  as  opposed  to  imitativeness  in 
children. 

9.  Give  examples  of  dramatic  imitation  in  which  you  engaged  as  a  child 
or  have  observed  in  other  children. 

10.  Give  examples  of  the  ways  in  which  dramatic  imitation  may  be  utilized 
in  school. 

11.  Describe  imaginary  companions  that  you  have  had  or  which  you 
know  of  other  children  having. 

12.  Give  illustrations  of  symbolism  which  children  have  or  have  not 
appreciated. 

13.  Show  how  voluntary  imitation  may  best  be  used  in  gymnastics, 
drawing,  writing,  word  building,  etc.,  indicating  parts  that  need  special 
practice,  and  the  motives  to  imitate,  which  may  be  appealed  to.  Should  a 
teacher  seek  to  secure  good  vocal  expression  in  reading  by  much  use  of 
voluntary  imitation,  or  should  she  depend  on  spontaneous  imitation  and 
natural  emotional  expression?    Why? 

14.  Describe  your  idealistic  imitations  at  different  ages. 

X  5 .  Show  why  ideals  are  especially  important  during  the  adolescent  period, 
and  indicate  a  variety  of  means  which  may  help  in  the  formation  of  high 
ideals. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  imitation  in  animals,  see  Thomdike,  Animal  Intelligence,  pp.  47-64; 
Monograph  Suppl.  to  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  II,  No.  4 ;  Mill,  Animal  Intelli- 
gence, pp.  163-164;  Small,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  160-164; 
Kinnaman,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  196-200. 

On  the  nature  and  significance  of  imitation,  see  Baldwin,  Century,  VoL 
XLIX,  pp.  160-164 ;  Mental  Development,  Vol.  I,  pp.  263-278 ;  Royce, 
Century,  Vol.  XLVIII,  pp.  137-145  ;  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  11,  pp.  217-235 ; 
EUwood,  Am.  Jr.  Sociology,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  721-741. 

On  suggestion  and  early  imitations,  see  Baldwin,  Vol.  I,  pp.  104-134; 
Preyer,  Senses  and  Will,  chap,  xii ;  Tracy,  pp.  102-103 ;  Compayre, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  1-17. 

For  descriptions  and  discxissions  of  what  children  imitate,  see  HaskeU, 
Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  30-47,  or  Frear,  Ped.  Sent.,  VoL  IV,  pp.  382- 
386;  Sudborough,  iV.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VQ,  pp.  99,  136,  162,  226,  300, 
352 ;  Waldo,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  n,  pp.  75-87. 


174  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

On  choice  and  imitation  of  ideals,  see  Barnes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  243-253,  Vol.  II, 

pp.  243-270 ;  Chambers,  Fed.  Sem.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  101-143,  and  references 

given  by  the  latter. 
On  imaginary  companions,  see  Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  98-101 ; 

Learoyd,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  86-90. 
On  imitation   in   relation   to   education,  Deahl,  Columbia  Univ.  Contrih. 

to  Philos.,   1900,  p.    103 ;   Van  Liew,    N.   W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp. 

320-327;  Ledyard,  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  547-551;  Harris,  N.  E.  A., 

1894,  pp.  637-641. 


Later  References 

Books 

Bolton 

Major 

Deahl 

Sandiford 

Dnimmond 

Tanner 

GeseU 

Thorndike  (8) 

Kirkpatrick  (i 

&3) 

Tracy 

Articles 

Craig,  Aime  T.    The  Development  of  a  Dramatic  Element  in  Education. 

Ped.  Sem.,  1908,  Vol.  15,  pp.  75-81. 
Gilbertson,  Albert  N.    A  Swedish  Study  in  Children's  Ideals.     Ped.  Sem., 

1913,  Vol.  20,  pp.  100-106. 
Goddard,  H.  H.    Ideals  of  a  Group  of   German  Children.    Ped.    Sem., 

1906,  Vol.  13,  pp.  208-220. 
Herts,  Alice  M.    Dramatic  Instinct,  Its  Use  and  Misuse.    Ped.  Sem.,  1908, 

Vol.  15,  pp.  550-562. 
Hill,  D.  S.    Comparative  Study  of  Children's  Ideals.     Ped.  Sem.,   191 1, 

Vol.  18,  pp.  219-231. 
Simons,  Sarah  E.    Imitative  Writing  in  the  High  School.     Ped.  Sem., 

1910,  Vol.  17,  pp.  451-479- 
Swett,  Harry  P.    Her  Little  Girl.    Ped.  Sem.,  1910,  VoL  17,  pp.  104-110. 


CHAPTER  XI 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  PLAY 
THEORY   OF   PLAY 

The  older  theory  set  forth  by  Spencer  considers  play  to  be 
the  activity  by  which  surplus  energy  is  used.  If  we  conceive  of 
surplus  energy  as  meaning  superabundance  of  energy,  the  theory 
is  not  true  to  the  facts,  for  children  must  be  very  sick  or  tired 
before  the  play  impulse  disappears.  If,  however,  the  word 
*' surplus"  is  taken  to  mean,  in  a  general  way,  the  energy  which 
is  most  easily  set  free,  then  play  may  properly  be  looked  upon 
as  the  activity  by  which  such  energy  is  most  likely  to  be  utilized. 
Excess  of  energy  is  thus  a  condition  favorable  to  play  activity 
rather  than  an  essential  cause  of  it. 

The  more  recent  discussions  of  play,  especially  those  of  Groos, 
have  emphasized  its  instinctive  character.  It  is  shown  that 
young  animals  of  all  kinds  have  the  play  impulse,  and  that  the 
form  of  the  play  is  related  to  the  instincts  of  the  animal.  In 
general,  the  animal  uses  the  same  powers  that  his  ancestors  have 
used  in  gaining  food,  avoiding  enemies,  and  securing  the  per- 
petuation of  the  species,  and  thus  exercises  the  powers  he  will 
himself  need  to  use  when  no  longer  protected  by  parental  care. 
Each  instinct  as  it  appears  is  thus  developed  and  perfected  by 
playful  activity  before  it  needs  to  be  used  seriously. 

These  two  theories  need  to  be  combined.  In  play  there  must 
always  be  some  energy  which  is  surplus  in  the  sense  that  it  may 
be  used  in  other  ways  than  to  obtain  necessary  ends.  The 
activities  most  readily  initiated  are  of  parts  which  have  most 

^7$ 


176  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

available  energy,  either  because  they  are  growing  and  developing 
or  are  less  fatigued  than  other  parts.  The  way  in  which  the 
active  parts  are  used,  depends  upon  the  openness  of  certain 
"paths"  connecting  them,  which  is  determined  largely  by  the 
instincts  that  are  coming  into  prominence  at  the  time.  The 
plays  of  young  animals  are  therefore  greatly  influenced  by  the 
order  in  which  their  powers  and  instincts  develop,  and,  in  turn, 
play  directly  promotes  the  development  of  powers  that  will 
be  needed  in  adult  Ufe. 

In  the  case  of  adults,  play  is  influenced  by  fatigue,  and  is  a 
means  of  developing  powers  not  used  in  daily  work;  hence  it 
aids  all-round  development,  and  furnishes  a  means  of  recreation. 
Play  and  necessity  are  the  chief  stimuli  to  learning.  In  children, 
who  are  largely  shielded  from  necessity,  play  in  its  various  forms 
is  the  more  important  factor  in  development. 

WORK,   PLAY,   AND  ABfUSEMENT 

Objectively,  work  and  play  cannot  easily  be  distinguished, 
although  the  results  of  playful  activity  are  usually  of  little  lasting 
importance,  while  work  usually  has  results  more  or  less  valuable 
and  permanent. 

Stdjectively,  an  act  is  playful  when  it  is  not  only  enjoyable, 
but  is  directed  chiefly  to  the  securing  of  pleasure,  while  it  is  of  the 
work  type  when  an  end  is  being  striven  for  and  the  activity  is 
being  guided  by  that  end.  Play  is  comparatively  free  since  it 
is  directed  by  pleasure,  while  in  work  there  is  some  necessity  for 
doing,  and  to  secure  the  end  there  must  be  activity  of  the  right 
kind  at  the  right  time,  and  in  the  right  way,  more  or  less  regard- 
less of  desire. 

Physiologically,  work  often  requires  the  use  of  the  same  parts 
of  body  or  brain  in  the  same  way,  for  a  considerable  time ;  while 
play,  continuing  one  kind  of  activity  only  as  long  as  is  agreeable, 
exercises  many  parts  of  the  body  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  usually 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    ADAPTIVE    INSTINCTS  —  PLAY     177 

no  one  part  for  very  long,  without  change.  In  work,  the  least 
available  energy  is  often  used,  and  the  activity  is  always  directed ; 
while  in  play,  parts  having  the  most  utilizable  energy  are  freely 
active.  For  this  reason  work  is  much  harder  and  more  wearisome 
even  when  the  amount  of  activity  is  less. 

Often  an  act  involves  the  chief  elements  of  both  work  and 
play,  and  it  is  impossible  to  classify  it  with  assurance  under  either 
head.  A  boy  building  a  dam  is  said  to  be  playing,  while  a  man 
constructing  a  larger  one  for  permanent  use  is  said  to  be  working. 
The  boy  is  not  compelled  to  engage  in  that  activity  at  all,  or 
at  a  certain  time,  or  to  continue  the  construction  longer  than 
pleases  him.  Yet  if  he  becomes  completely  engrossed,  he  may 
feel  that  he  must  finish  it  in  the  way  he  has  planned,  before 
stopping.  The  man  is  to  some  extent  forced  by  some  need  of 
his  own  or  of  the  community,  to  begin  and  carry  on  his  work ; 
yet  if  he  becomes  thoroughly  interested,  his  enjoyment  may  be 
as  keen  as  that  of  the  boy  and  he  may  do  much  more  in  the  way 
of  perfecting  the  job  than  necessity  demands.  Thus  the  best 
work  has  in  it  the  essential  elements  of  play,  and  the  most  en- 
joyable play  involves  as  much  directive  effort  as  work. 

Play  is  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of  learning  to  work. 
Obstacles  are  met  in  most  plays,  and  the  child  must  do  many 
things  that  in  themselves  are  disagreeable,  in  order  that  he  may 
carry  out  his  plans.  The  act,  as  a  whole,  is  play,  though  parts  of 
it  are  work.  The  more  complex  a  child's  play  becomes,  the  more 
work  is  there  connected  with  it.  Materials  must  be  collected 
before  a  tea  party  can  be  held ;  bait  must  be  dug  and  a  long 
tramp  taken  before  fishing  is  possible;  bases  must  be  marked 
out  before  the  ball  game  begins,  and  forts  must  be  built  before 
the  snowball  battle  opens.  The  boys  who  cleared  a  field  of 
stones  in  dramatic  play,  by  representing  the  stones  as  water, 
and  the  pile  where  they  were  dumped  as  fire,  were  playing, 
though  doing  with  much  more  than  their  usual  working  vigor 


178  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

what  would  have  been  very  hard  and  tiresome  without  the  play- 
ful exercise  of  the  dramatic  instinct  to  lighten  it  and  make  it 
enjoyable. 

Nearly  every  adult  must  of  necessity  work,  yet  his  work  may 
be  to  him  a  most  enjoyable  play  if  it  is  well  chosen  and  carried 
on  in  the  proper  spirit.  If  it  is  so  well  suited  to  his  powers,  and 
he  takes  such  a  pride  and  pleasure  in  it  that  he  would  continue 
to  perform  it  if  relieved  of  the  necessity  of  thus  making  a  living, 
then  he  is  really  playing  while  he  works.  This  is  perhaps  more 
often  the  case  with  artists,  authors,  and  inventors,  but  it  may  be 
equally  true  of  a  farmer,  business  man,  mechanic,  motorman, 
or  teacher. 

Games  are  intermediate  between  free  play  and  work  because 
they  involve  more  or  less  direction  of  activity  according  to  rule, 
and  more  or  less  repetition  of  the  same  acts ;  yet  they  are  freely 
chosen  and  usually  are  played  for  their  own  sake,  and  not  for 
results  to  be  gained.  Professional  players,  who  are  after  the 
rewards  rather  than  the  pleasures  of  the  game,  are  not  playing, 
but  working.  This  is  also  true  to  a  considerable  extent  of  college 
athletes  who  desire  honors  and  sacrifice  pleasure  to  win. 

Amusement  is  a  mild  and  passive  form  of  play,  a  name  of  which 
it  is  scarcely  worthy  because  it  involves  so  little  activity  on  the 
part  of  the  one  being  amused.  Some  one  else  does  the  work 
(though  perhaps  in  the  form  of  play),  whle  the  seeker  after 
pleasure  enjoys  it  if  he  can.  Here,  as  in  other  cases,  there  is 
little  to  be  gained  without  earning  it  One  who  has  been  working 
hard  may  get  a  great  deal  of  enjoyment  and  rest  from  amuse- 
ments; but  one  who  devotes  his  life  to  amusements,  ceases  to 
enjoy  them.  To  amuse,  a  thing  must  be  novel  or  exciting  or 
appeal  to  phases  of  one's  nature  not  affected  by  one's  occupation. 
To  hard-working  people,  with  little  surplus  energy,  amusements 
are  a  valuable  means  of  rest  and  sometimes  a  source  of  general 
culture.    To  those  whose  available  energy  is  used  in  their  daily 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    ADAPTIVE    INSTINCTS  —  PLAY    179 

tasks,  amusements  are  almost  indispensable,  and  play  scarcely 
necessary ;  while  for  all  others  active  play  is  essential,  and  mere 
amusement  of  secondary  importance.  Children,  in  general, 
need  play  rather  than  amusement. 

In  these  days  of  urban  life  and  specialization,  in  which  few  of 
a  man's  powers  are  used  in  his  occupation,  play  and  amusement 
are  of  far  more  importance  than  formerly.  The  man  who  does 
not  play  in  some  way  soon  degenerates,  because  so  few  of  his 
powers  are  used. 

CHANGES  WITH  AGE  AS  REGARDS  FREEDOM  IN  PLAY 

The  first  plays  of  children  are  wholly  free,  i.e.,  follow  no 
rules.  Attempts  to  direct  a  child's  activity  by  showing  him 
how  to  pound  or  build  are  often  resented  in  the  first  year  or  two. 
During  the  next  three  or  four  years,  customs  which  serve  the 
purpose  of  rules  of  the  play  may  be  established  through  imita- 
tion; but  any  attempt  to  dictate  when,  what,  or  how  a  child 
shall  play  is  met  with  opposition.  Suggestions  must  also  be 
given  with  care. 

Upon  entering  school  the  child  is  ready  for  games  with  very 
simple  rules,  but  quickly  loses  his  interest  in  a  game  having 
many  rules,  because  too  much  voluntary  effort  is  required  to 
play  it.  For  example,  drop  the  handkerchief  is  enjoyed  very 
much  when  there  is  no  rule  except  to  pick  up  the  handkerchief 
and  chase  the  dropper,  then  leave  it  behind  some  one  else ;  but 
if  the  more  complex  form  is  tried,  in  which  the  one  behind  whom 
it  is  dropped  must  discover  it  for  himself,  or  go  inside  the  ring, 
or  must  run  in  a  certain  direction  while  the  dropper,  if  caught, 
goes  inside  the  ring,  and  those  inside  get  out  by  being  the  first 
to  seize  the  handkerchief  when  dropped  behind  some  one  in 
the  circle,  very  young  children  find  it  puzzling  and  irksome, 
though  older  children,  familiar  with  the  game,  enjoy  it  more 
than  the  simpler  form. 


i8o  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

During  the  first  five  years  the  child's  activities  are  free  and 
imaginative  and  are  almost  wholly  of  the  kind  called  play; 
while  in  the  period  from  five  to  ten,  games  become  more  and 
more  prominent,  and  after  twelve,  plays  other  than  dramatic 
have  almost  wholly  given  place  to  games  and  sports. 

Play  must  always  be  free  in  the  sense  of  being  engaged  in  be- 
cause the  individual  wants  to  perform  the  acts  for  their  own  sake 
and  their  immediate  results,  such  as  satisfying  the  instinctive  de- 
sire to  win  in  a  contest.  If  a  person  is  forced  to  play,  or  paid 
for  playing,  the  act  is  at  once  transformed  into  work.  Tennis 
played  only  for  the  benefit  of  the  exercise  is  not  play,  but  work. 

Play  becomes  less  free  with  age,  in  the  sense  that  activity 
is  directed  in  definite  lines  by  the  requirements  of  the  rxiles  of 
the  game.  This  conformity  to  law  does  not  decrease  the  free- 
dom of  the  individuals  engaging  in  the  more  complex  group 
games,  but  rather  increases  it  by  restricting  the  action  of  each 
individual  as  to  kind,  time,  and  place,  so  that  one  may  not  inter- 
fere with  another.  Children  enjoy  playing  with  an  older  person 
who  leads  according  to  rules,  and  they  thus  learn  to  appreciate 
the  value  of  rules,  so  that  they  become  indignant  with  the  com- 
panion who  interferes  with  the  game,  and  consequently  with  the 
freedom  of  each  player,  by  refusing  to  conform  to  rules  or  by 
trying  to  cheat. 

The  great  lesson  of  law  as  a  means  of  freedom  is  nowhere  so 
well  taught  as  in  well-directed  and  orderly  play.  In  no  other 
place  can  a  child  so  fully  realize  for  himself  the  value  of  law  as 
on  the  playground.  A  teacher  who  can  successfully  lead  children 
to  play  happily  in  accordance  with  whatever  rules  are  necessary, 
is  not  only  forming  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  orderly  and  fair 
play,  but  she  is  also  preparing  the  children  for  good  citizenship 
more  effectually  than  she  can  possibly  do  in  the  schoolroom, 
unless  the  children  are  led  to  have  as  keen  a  personal  interest 
in  what  is  being  done  there. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  PLAY     i8l 
CHANGES  WITH  AGE  AS   REGARDS  POWERS  USED   IN  PLAY 

Children  begin  playing  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  first  year, 
and  long  before  the  close  of  that  year  have  engaged  in  a  great 
variety  of  plays.  Almost  every  sensation  and  movement  which 
comes  under  their  control  is  repeated  again  and  again  as  play. 
Objects  are  scratched,  rubbed,  pounded,  rolled,  and  tossed 
about  almost  continually.  If  in  doing  so  the  eye  and  ear  are 
variously  stimulated,  the  pleasure  is  all  the  greater.  Not  only 
objects,  but  parts  of  the  child's  own  body,  are  used  as  instruments 
of  play.  This  is  perhaps  most  marked  in  the  case  of  the  mouth 
and  vocal  organs,  which  during  the  first  year  or  two  are  endless 
sources  of  amusement.  The  powers  most  exercised  in  this 
early  play  are  evidently  those  of  the  sense  organs  and  the  muscles. 
There  is  no  attempt  to  use  them  accurately  or  in  any  definite 
way,  but  merely  to  use  them  freely  over  and  over,  yet  with 
infinite  variations.  In  shaking  brightly  colored  balls  or  a  rattle, 
it  is  hard  to  tell  which  is  the  greater  source  of  pleasure,  —  the 
varied  and  repeated  muscular  sensations,  or  the  changing  and 
recurrent  visual  and  auditory  sensations;  but  either  alone  is 
sufiicient  to  call  forth  the  play  instinct,  for  the  sight  of  waving 
ribbons  or  dancing  sunbeams  is  a  visual  play,  as  sounds  and 
jingles  are  auditory  play,  and  movements  of  limbs,  muscular 
play. 

For  two  or  three  years  the  child's  play  is  almost  wholly 
sensory,  motor,  and  perceptional.  Great  progress  is  made,  how- 
ever, during  this  time,  for  the  movements  become  much  more 
complex,  so  that  all  parts  of  the  body  are  used  at  once,  and  they 
are  not  merely  used  but  exercised  in  doing  specific  things  in- 
volving some  accuracy,  as  in  preserving  the  balance  when  jump- 
ing or  throwing  something,  or  in  hitting  objects  or  piling  them 
up  so  they  will  stay. 

In  the  sensory  and  motor  plays  of  children  the  mental  powers 


l82  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

are  also  used  so  that  there  is  perception  of  likeness  or  diflference 
and  of  space,  as  the  child  pounds  objects  and  puts  one  inside  of 
or  on  top  of  another  and  arranges  (or  scatters)  them  to  his  satis- 
faction. 

In  the  third  year  the  representative  powers  are  developed 
sufficiently  to  be  used  extensively  in  play.  The  child  begins 
to  find  amusement  in  reproducing  or  representing  acts  and 
events  that  have  been  observed  on  previous  occasions.  He 
delights  in  reproducing  phrases,  rhymes  and  actions,  and  in 
representing  events,  as  a  visit  to  a  neighbor  or  a  ride.  Soon 
nearly  all  of  his  play  is  transferred  to  the  field  of  imagination, 
where  his  freedom  is  complete ;  and  no  object  is  so  remote,  rare, 
or  costly  that  he  cannot  have  it  in  the  form  of  a  representation, 
and  no  process  so  difiicult  that  it  is  not  readily  performed  (in 
his  mind)  by  the  manipulation  of  a  few  simple  objects.  Feasts 
and  fetes  are  provided  on  short  notice,  and  without  the  hitches 
that  so  often  trouble  adult  dispensers  of  hospitality. 

Imagination  as  a  director  of  playful  movements  usually  ap- 
proaches its  climax  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  years.  After  this, 
imaginative  play  may  be  occupied  for  several  years  with  enjoy- 
ing and  creating  fanciful  stories  often  associated  with  dramatic 
action.  Fairy  stories  are  interesting  largely  because  they  give 
playful  exercise  to  the  imagination.  Later,  the  less  free  activity 
of  representing  historical  and  geographical  facts  may  be  engaged 
in. 

As  the  child  grows  older,  mere  exercise  of  physical  powers 
becomes  a  less  important  element,  though  any  new  movement,  as 
standing  on  the  head,  turning  somersaults,  skinning  the  cat, 
walking  on  the  hands,  etc.,  always  appeals  to  the  ever  develop- 
ing instinct  of  play.  After  five  or  six  years,  familiar  movements 
are  made  in  play,  not  merely  to  use  the  power,  but  to  use  it  in 
some  definite  way,  involving  quickness,  strength,  endurance,  or 
accuracy.     From  six  or  seven  years  to  puberty,  testing  exercises 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  PLAY     183 

of  physical  powers  are  important  elements  in  the  plays  and  games 
of  children,  especially  of  boys.  During  the  latter  part  of  this 
period  there  is  not  only  desire  to  do  what  companions  can  or 
what  they  cannot  do,  but  to  reach  certain  standards,  to  "make 
records." 

From  six  to  twelve  the  perceptive  and  representative  powers 
are  not  merely  used,  but  tested  along  with  the  physical.  Thought 
power  has  been  used  to  some  extent  before  this  time  in  coimec- 
tion  with  the  imagination,  in  judging  and  reasoning  as  to  the 
proper  and  logical  mode  of  representing  persons  and  events  {e.g. 
the  larger  stick  must  be  papa  and  he  must  sit  at  the  head  of  the 
table  or  must  drive  the  horse,  or  the  yellow  block  must  be  the 
car  and  the  black  one  the  engine  and  the  latter  must  be  in  front). 
Later,  imaginary  incidents  and  scenes  must  conform  to  the  laws 
of  probability.  Thought  power  as  a  distinct  element  in  the 
pleasure  of  play  is  not,  however,  very  prominent  till  about 
seven  or  eight,  when  guessing  games  and  riddles  begin  to  have 
a  great  fascination.  A  little  later,  games  that  chiefly  exercise 
thought  power,  such  as  flinch,  checkers,  cards,  authors,  come 
into  favor,  and  finally  perhaps  the  most  intellectual  of  all  games, 
chess.  To  some  children  the  thought  activity  involved  in  such 
subjects  as  mathematics  may  be  as  enjoyable  as  play. 

In  general,  we  may  say  that  every  power,  physical  and  mental, 
as  it  appears,  is  playfully  exercised,  and  thus  its  development 
is  hastened,  and  after  each  power  is  developed  to  some  extent, 
it  is  tested  and  perfected  in  contests  and  games. 

CHANGES   WITH   AGE   AS  REGARDS   INSTINCTS   INVOLVED   IN  PLAY 

The  early  stages  of  almost  all  instincts  are  manifested  in  play, 
and  after  they  are  used  for  the  serious  purposes  of  life  they  are 
still  important  factors  in  more  or  less  playful  activities  outside 
of  one's  vocation. 

Perhaps  the  earliest  instinct  to  be  shown  in  play  is  that  fonn 


184  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

of  curiosity  which  delights  in  changes.  For  this  reason,  peek- 
a-boo  and  other  sudden  transformations  are  enjoyed,  when  re- 
peated over  and  over  again.  A  certain  interval  of  preparation 
before  making  a  final  movement  which  effects  the  change,  seems 
to  add  to  the  pleasure.  This  indicates  that  the  rhythmic  tend- 
ency is,  from  the  first,  an  important  element  in  children's 
play.  The  early  enjoyment  of  recurrent  sensations,  movements, 
and  jingles  is  further  evidence  of  the  early  prominence  of  this 
instinct. 

The  movements  of  emotional  expression  in  attitude  and  voice 
are  often  made  playfully  in  the  third  year,  though  the  expressive 
instinct  has  a  serious  use  for  them  from  the  first. 

The  feeling  of  personal  power  in  effecting  changes  is  an  im- 
portant element  in  play,  as  soon  as  the  child  gains  control  of  his 
hands. 

As  soon  as  a  child  attains  any  form  of  locomotion,  whether 
rolling,  creeping,  or  walking,  he  delights  in  being  chased.  This, 
one  of  the  most  universally  useful  of  all  instincts,  is  prominent 
in  play  at  all  ages  and  is  the  chief  element  in  nearly  all  the  more 
popular  games,  at  least  before  puberty. 

Imitative  acts,  when  repeated  over  and  over  without  purpose, 
may  be  considered  as  playful;  hence  imitative  and  dramatic 
plays  are  very  popular  from  three  to  seven,  and  dramatic  play 
continues  in  favor  much  later. 

It  is  hard  to  say  just  when  the  fighting  and  competitive  in- 
stinct is  first  manifested,  either  seriously  or  playfully ;  but  com- 
petition is  the  most  prominent  element  in  the  play  of  children 
from  seven  to  twelve.  It  continues  to  be  a  prominent  feature  in 
games  all  through  life,  but  is  often  subordinated  to  the  group  or 
social  instinct  which  develops  at  puberty.  Such  games  as  base- 
ball and  football,  which  involve  cooperation  and  subordination 
of  individual  prowess  and  honor  for  the  sake  of  the  greater 
prowess  and  honor  of  the  group  (which  represents  the  youth's 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  PLAY      185 

larger  self),  are  then  most  favored.  This  cooperative  or  tribal 
tendency  is  also  manifested  in  connection  with  predatory  in- 
stincts at  the  beginning  of  puberty,  in  the  formation  of  gangs 
for  such  purposes  as  hunting,  fishing,  robbing,  teasing  police- 
men, or  fighting  boys  of  another  neighborhood.  Other  instincts 
taking  the  form  of  play  or  involved  in  play  are  the  constructive, 
collecting,  and  aesthetic  instincts,  all  of  which  begin  early  and 
continue  all  through  life,  varying  with  age  as  to  the  form  they 
take. 

PLAY  AS  A  FACTOR  IN  EDUCATION 

Necessity  is  not  only  the  "mother  of  invention,"  but  also  of 
a  great  deal  of  knowledge  of  all  kinds.  Animals,  nations,  and 
individuals  must  learn  something  of  their  environment,  such  as 
how  best  to  secure  food,  escape  danger,  and  preserve  their  species. 
This  is  true  of  adults,  but  not  in  so  great  a  degree  of  young 
animals  and  children,  for  they  are,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
screened  from  the  necessities  of  hfe  by  parental  care  and  pro- 
tection. Without  this  protection,  necessity  would  be  to  the 
young,  in  their  weakness  and  ignorance,  an  executioner  rather 
than  a  teacher. 

How  shall  these  helpless  and  ignorant  young  ones  become 
strong  and  wise?  Partly  through  physical  development  as 
determined  by  inner  laws  governing  the  growth  of  the  species, 
and  partly  through  occasional  touches  of  necessity  in  spite  of 
the  screen  of  parental  care,  but  chiefly  through  Nature's  jolly 
old  nurse.  Play,  who  charms  animals  and  children  into  using 
every  power  as  it  develops,  and  into  finding  out  everything 
possible  about  their  environment  from  the  heavens  above  to  the 
earth  beneatii. 

Practically  all  education  among  animals  and  savages  is  carried 
on  by  "Mother  Necessity"  and  "Nurse  Play,"  but  among 
civilized  people  there  is  a  third  teacher  which  we  may  designate 
as  "Stepmother  Authority."    All  civilized  people  select  certain 


i86  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

truths  and  activities  which  they  regard  as  valuable,  and  induce 
the  children,  by  various  more  or  less  artificial  means,  to  learn 
them  and  thus  prepare  for  the  life  they  are  to  live  as  adults. 
Such  education,  if  consistent  and  wise,  may  be  very  valuable, 
but  it  is  artificial.  It  often  does  not  make  use  of  natural  im- 
pulses, and  is  therefore  very  wasteful  of  the  energy  of  both 
teachers  and  pupils.  If  the  natural  educators,  necessity  and 
play,  were  properly  utilized,  it  would  be  like  travelling  with  the 
wind  and  tide  instead  of  by  wearisome  rowing  in  dead  calms  or 
against  adverse  winds. 

Since  the  conditions  of  life  are  now  quite  different  from  what 
they  were  in  a  savage  state,  we  need  a  special  preparation  for 
life  as  it  has  to  be  lived  now.  Activities  which  would  in  a  proper 
degree  develop  all  the  powers  possessed  by  our  ancestors  would 
not  give  the  best  preparation  for  the  life  of  to-day.  It  is  neces- 
sary, therefore,  that  truths  and  activities  suited  to  modern  life 
shall  be  selected,  to  the  end  that  children  may  be  properly 
educated.  If  the  child  comes  in  contact  with  this  artificial 
environment,  necessity  and  playful  imitation  will  induce  him  to 
choose  many,  perhaps  most,  of  the  truths  and  activities  which 
will  be  of  greatest  value  to  him  in  life.  Yet  it  is  still  necessary 
for  authority  to  do  something  in  the  way  of  selecting  and  arrang- 
ing educative  truths  and  activities  for  the  young. 

The  teacher,  in  presenting  this  educative  material  to  the  chil- 
dren, may  act  as  a  servant  of  authority  and  simply  require,  by 
rewards  and  punishments,  that  children  shall  take  it,  or  she  may 
try  to  present  it  in  such  a  way  that  the  greater  portion  of  the 
time  the  child  recognizes  no  other  teachers  than  stern  "Mother 
Necessity"  and  joyous  "Play."  If  she  succeeds  in  the  latter 
method,  play  is  the  chief  factor  in  education  during  the  early 
years ;  but  gradually  more  and  more  place  is  given  to  Necessity, 
until  she  is  the  honored  director  of  activity  in  manhood,  or  per- 
chance both  give  place  to  the  twin  sisters,  Doing  and  Achieve- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  PLAY      187 

ment,  who  smile  alike  on  work  that  is  as  joyous  as  play  and 
play  that  is  as  valuable  as  work. 

In  school,  where  what  is  to  be  done  and  learned  is  determined 
by  the  course  of  study,  there  are  yet  so  many  ways  of  doing  and 
learning  that  it  is  often  possible  for  the  teacher  to  arrange  exer- 
cises so  that  the  dominant  powers  and  instincts  of  the  children 
at  each  age  shall  be  called  into  activity  in  a  playful  way.  Curi- 
osity suppUes  all  the  interest  necessary  in  learning  new  things ; 
but  something  else  is  required  in  drilling  on  what  has  been 
learned,  to  produce  accuracy,  speed,  permanency,  and  facility 
in  using.  It  is  in  this  part  of  school  work  that  the  play  impulse 
may  be  utilized  to  the  best  advantage.  With  a  Uttle  ingenuity 
every  such  exercise  may  be  so  conducted  tliat  it  will  really  be 
play.  It  will  also  be  work,  in  that  the  child  will  be  induced  to 
perform  again  and  again  the  same  act,  but  without  weariness, 
because  the  act  is  variously  associated,  and  always  agreeably, 
in  new  combinations  with  powers  and  instincts  that  are  being 
playfully  exercised.  All  school  exercises  in  which  repetition  to 
secure  skill  and  accuracy  is  necessary,  including  word  drill, 
numbers  requiring  rapidity  in  fundamental  operations,  factor- 
ing, etc.,  and  fixing  facts  of  geography,  history,  and  grammar, 
may  be  conducted  as  games  rather  than  as  formal  drills. 

In  conducting  such  exercises  the  teacher  may  or  may  not  call 
them  games,  and  she  must  not  make  them  too  easy.  Most 
games  owe  their  charm  to  their  difficulty,  and  nothing  is  more 
tiresome  and  destructive  of  real  interest  and  ambition  in  children 
than  doing  easy  things  only.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  nothing 
so  stimulating  and  inspiring  to  children  as  to  be  allowed  to  do 
things  that  are  supposed  to  be  difficult.  The  more  difficult  an 
exercise  can  be  made  to  appear  to  children  the  better,  providing 
they  are  not  deterred  from  trying,  and  that  it  is  not  really  so 
difficult  that  they  cannot  succeed. 

The  other  essential  to  the  success  of  such  exercises  is  that  there 


1 88  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

shall  be  frequent  changes  to  give  variety.  Except  for  very 
young  children,  these  changes  may  consist  largely  of  slight 
modifications  in  the  exercise  which  make  it  more  difficult  in 
one  way,  then  in  another,  as  they  acquire  facility  in  successive 
phases  of  activity.  By  such  changes  interest  is  maintained 
through  variety  and  by  the  constant  re-adaptation  of  the  exercise 
to  the  growing  powers  of  the  child.  Adaptations  to  new  powers 
and  instincts  are  also  desirable  as  the  child  develops. 

In  planning  educational  games  for  younger  children,  the 
muscular,  perceptive,  and  imaginative  powers  must  be  called 
into  action  and  tested.  When  children  are  a  little  older, 
reasoning  ability  may  be  exercised  and  imagination  and 
memory  tested.  As  children  grow  older,  the  tests  may  be  made 
more  difficult  and  complex,  resulting  finally  in  tests  of  various 
powers  combined,  including  thought  power.  The  rhythmic,  im- 
itative, and  dramatic  instincts  may  be  chiefly  appealed  to  in 
the  younger  children,  then  from  seven  to  twelve  the  competitive 
instincts,  and  from  ten  years  on,  the  cooperative,  group,  or  class 
spirit.  The  chief  points  to  be  recognized  are  that  the  drill  be 
neither  too  difficult  nor  too  easy,  that  there  be  some  element  in 
it  that  appeals  to  the  children,  and  that  variety  be  introduced 
in  order  that  there  may  be  no  fatigue  or  loss  of  interest. 

In  utilizing  the  play  impulses  care  must  be  exercised  that  the 
child  learns  to  enjoy  and  appreciate  work  and  to  engage  in  it 
when  necessary  whether  he  enjoys  it  or  not.  If  he  feels  keenly 
the  necessity,  usefulness,  or  beauty  of  a  task  and  believes  that  he 
can  perform  it,  he  will  enjoy  doing  it,  although  parts  of  it  may  be 
unpleasant.  The  play  impulse  may  lead  one  to  desire  to  achieve, 
and  along  with  it  should  be  cultivated  an  appreciation  for  things 
that  are  worthy  of  achievement.  This  will  combine  in  the  most 
happy  way  the  play  and  the  work  impulses. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  —  PLAY      189 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Mention  some  plays  of  animals  and  children  that  you  think  develop 
their  instincts  and  prepare  them  for  adult  life. 

2.  Describe  the  recreations  of  some  adults  you  know,  and  explain  on  the 
theory  of  play.  Why  do  brain  workers  engage  in  manual  labor  and  city 
people  go  to  the  country  for  recreation? 

3.  Why  is  a  mason  piling  up  brick,  working,  and  a  child  piling  up  blocks, 
playing? 

4.  Is  one  who  engages  in  billiards  or  bowling  to  secure  a  prize  of  value, 
working  or  playing  ?     Why  ? 

5.  Is  drawing  or  singing  work  or  play  for  you ?  Why?  Is  any  of  your 
work  really  play  to  you  ? 

6.  Mention  games  and  sports  that  are  especially  valuable  in  preparing 
for  work,  giving  reasons. 

7.  Yoder,  in  his  study  of  the  boyhood  of  great  men,  found  that  most  of 
them  were  noted  players  when  boys.     How  do  you  interpret  this? 

8.  Mention  several  amusements  as  distinguished  from  play,  and  indicate 
their  value,  if  any. 

9.  Is  there  danger  in  these  days  of  moving  pictures  and  pleasure  parks 
that  children  shall  play  and  work  too  little  and  be  amused  too  much? 
What  should  be  done? 

10.  Does  the  statement,  "  A  teacher  shoidd  interest  her  pupils,"  mean  she 
should  amuse  them,  or  what  does  it  mean  ? 

1 1 .  What  plays  and  games  did  you  most  enjoy  at  different  ages  ?  What 
games  are  most  popular  among  children  you  have  observed  at  different 
ages?  Determine  as  well  as  you  can  what  characteristics  of  various  games 
make  them  popular,  taking  into  accoimt  the  freedom  of  the  game,  the  powers 
used,  and  the  instincts  involved. 

12.  Mention  things  some  animals  you  know  of  learned  by  necessity. 
Mention  things  you  and  other  individuals  learned  because  it  was  necessary, 
Mention  differences  in  knowledge  possessed  by  the  people  of  different  regions, 
produced  by  conditions  under  which  their  life  must  be  maintained. 

13.  Which  has  been  the  larger  factor,  necessity  or  the  play  impulse,  in 
developing  practical  knowledge  ?    The  sciences  ?    The  arts  ? 

14.  What  connection  is  there  between  the  statements  that  we  should 
utilize  the  play  impulse  of  children  and  that  we  should  appeal  to  their 
interests  ? 

15.  Mention  indoor  gymnastic  plays  that  are  good  for  recreation  and 


19©  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

physical  development.  When  the  teacher  directs  each  movement,  are 
gymnastics  a  rest  or  another  form  of  work? 

i6.  Describe  games  that  may  be  used  in  numbers,  arithmetic,  geography, 
and  history  in  certain  grades,  and  indicate  changes  that  may  be  made  as  the 
children  progress. 

17.  Discuss  possible  disadvantages  of  having  children  learn  by  playing 
instead  of  because  they  must  do  tasks. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  general  theory  and  value  of  play,  read  Spencer,  Psychology,  Vol.  I, 
sec.  50,  and  Vol.  II,  chap,  ix;  Groos,  Play  of  Animals,  especially  pp. 
1-81,  and  the  preface  by  Baldwin;  Stanley,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  VI,  pp. 
86-92 ;  Allen,  Invest,  of  Ch.  Dept.  of  Psych,  and  Ed.,  Univ.  of  Colo. 
Studies,  Vol.  I,  pp.  59-72 ;  Carr,  Univ.  of  Colo.  Studies,  Vol.  I,  No.  2, 
pp.  1-47 ;  Blow,  Symbolic  Education,  chap,  v ;  Chamberlain,  The 
Child,  chap,  ii,  and  on  kinds  of  play,  Groos,  Play  of  Man. 

On  development  of  the  play  instinct,  besides  records  of  the  play  of  infants  in 
Preyer,  Moore,  Shinn,  Tracy,  and  of  young  animals  in  Mills  and  Groos, 
see  Monroe,  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  1084-1090;  Crosswell,  PeJ.  Sent., 
Vol.  VI,  pp.  314-371 ;  Gulick,  Ped.  Sent.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  135-151 ;  Burk, 
N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  349-355 ;  HaU  and  AUen,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IV, 
pp.  129-175;  Hall,  Scribner's  Mag.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  689-696;  Barnes, 
Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1 71-174. 

On  the  use  of  play  in  education,  Johnson,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  97-133, 
Vol.  VI,  pp.  513-522  ;  Felker,  N.  E.  A.,  1898,  pp.  624-630;  Powe  and 
others  in  N.  E.  A.,  1901,  pp.  502-532  ;  Harrison,  Child  Nature,  chap.  iii. 

For  descriptions  of  games  to  be  played,  see  Lucas,  What  Shall  We  Do  Now? 
Newell,  Games  and  Songs  of  American  Children;  Chesley,  Indoor  and 
Outdoor  Gymnastic  Games. 

Later  References 

Books 

Bancroft  Kirkpatrick  (3  &  4) 

Bradley  Lee 

Curtis  Parsons 

GeseU  Patrick 
HaU,  G.  S.  (2)  Stoner 

Johnston,  G.  E.  Tanner 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  —  PLAY      191 

Articles 

Hall,  G.  S.    Recreation  and  Reversion.    Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  22,   1915,  pp. 

510-520. 
Reaney,  M.  J.     The  Correlation  between  General  Intelligence  and  Play 

Ability  as  Shown  in  Organized  Group  Games.    Brit.  Jr.  of  Psychol., 

1914,  Vol.  7,  pp.  226-252. 
Smith,  P.  A.     Some  Phases  of  the  Play  of  Japanese  Boys  and  Men.    Ped. 

Sem.,  1909,  Vol.  16,  pp.  256-267. 


CHAPTER  Xn 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  CURIOSITY 

FUNCTION   OF   CURIOSITY 

From  the  moment  that  the  sunbeams  dancing  on  the  wall, 
or  the  little  hands  waving  before  the  eyes,  hold  the  infant's  gaze, 
till  the  time  when  the  latest  discoveries  in  science  are  eagerly 
examined  by  the  savant,  curiosity  in  some  form  is  daily  and 
hourly  a  factor  in  human  action  and  thought. 

Curiosity  is  even  more  omnivorous  than  imitation.  It  is  at 
first  almost  entirely  unselective,  except  as  stronger  stimuli  force 
themselves  upon  the  attention.  It  may  be  described  as  an 
appetite  for  new  experiences.  In  infancy  everything  is  new ; 
hence,  everything  is  interesting.  Curiosity  is  early  manifested 
in  a  tendency  to  prolong  a  sensation,  as  by  gazing  at  a  new  object ; 
or  to  reproduce  it,  as  when  a  sound  is  made  again ;  or  to  act  so 
as  to  get  one  or  more  additional  sensations,  as  when  an  object 
seen  is  felt  of ;  or  to  find  the  relation  of  one  sensation  to  others, 
as  when  a  child  discovers  that  touching  an  object  being  struck, 
deadens  the  sound.    Later,  similar  things  are  true  of  ideas. 

By  means  of  curiosity  a  child  is  brought  into  intimate  relation 
with  various  phases  of  his  environment  instead  of  simply  those 
that  minister  to  his  existence.  Everything  around  him  is  made 
a  part  of  himself.  The  trees,  the  hills,  the  birds,  the  people  of 
his  home  surroundings  are  compared  and  related  to  what  he 
finds  in  new  surroundings. 

The  greater  the  knowledge  of  environment  gained  through 
curiosity,  the  greater  the  possibility  of  adaptation  to  environ- 

192 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  CURIOSITY    193 

ment,  as  occasions  arise  involving  applications  of  knowledge 
which  has  hitherto  been  useless.  Thus  a  child  who  has  learned 
a  word  through  mere  curiosity  may  be  able  to  use  it  as  a  means 
of  getting  what  he  wants,  or  one  who  has  learned  through  mere 
curiosity  that  wood  floats,  wasps  sting,  plants  grow,  fire  burns, 
etc.,  may  on  occasion  use  the  knowledge  in  a  practical  way. 
Other  instincts  tend  to  produce  the  proper  response  to  present 
stimuH,  while  curiosity  is  continually  preparing  for  the  right 
response  to  conditions  that  may  be  met  in  the  future.  It  lays 
up  great  stores  of  knowledge  which  serve  as  a  basis  for  useful 
reactions.  If  man  never  learned  anything  before  he  had  occasion 
to  use  it,  he  would  suffer  in  countless  ways  from  improper  and 
delayed  action.  Necessity  is  a  great  teacher,  but  curiosity  is 
a  greater  teacher  in  early  life,  because  even  in  early  infancy  it 
gives  lessons  which  prepare  for  life.  It  does  not  inflict  immediate 
and  severe  pimishment  as  does  necessity,  but  it  gives  present 
joy  and  prepares  for  great  rewards  in  the  future. 

The  race  as  well  as  the  individual  has  learned  by  means  of 
curiosity.  In  its  highest  form  curiosity  has  led  to  many  scientific 
discoveries  of  no  immediate  practical  value.  Sooner  or  later, 
however,  these  abstract  scientific  truths  nearly  always  find 
valuable  practical  applications. 

CURIOSITY,   ATTENTION,   AND  INTEREST 

Curiosity,  as  an  instinct  or  impulse,  produces  in  consciousness 
a  concentration  of  activity  called  attention,  and  a  feeling  ac- 
companying the  act,  called  interest.  Studying  attention  and 
interest  is  therefore  the  chief  means  of  studpng  curiosity,  since 
they  are  largely  the  result  of  curiosity,  though  other  instincts 
and  much  experience  may  also  be  involved.  The  simple  mental 
state  of  attention  to  the  act  of  eating,  or  of  drawing  back  from 
a  dangerous  object,  is  the  result  of  the  feeding  and  the  fear 
instincts;    but  attention  to  the  taste,  feeling,  or  appearance  of 


194  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

food,  or  the  characteristics  of  the  object  of  fear,  is  due  mainly 
to  curiosity.  Often  there  is  a  prolonged  period  of  attention 
and  interest,  before  action  in  the  way  of  eating  the  food,  or 
backing  away  from  the  fearful  object,  or  of  approaching  for 
closer  investigation.  Curiosity  may,  therefore,  either  support 
or  oppose  the  attention  and  interest  excited  by  other  instincts. 
For  most  instincts,  however,  especially  for  play  and  imitation, 
it  is  a  forerunner  and  supporter  in  the  sense  of  leading  to  a  closer 
examination  of  objects,  though  this  often  results  in  checking  the 
usual  instinctive  mode  of  reaction  to  those  objects. 

The  essential  characteristic  of  a  stimulus  which  arouses  the 
instinct  of  curiosity  is  that  of  novelty.  Since,  however,  a  stim- 
ulus must  have  a  certain  degree  of  intensity  to  be  elffective,  and 
as  everything  is  at  first  new,  it  is  the  louder  sounds,  the  brighter 
colors  and  stronger  contrasts,  as,  for  instance,  the  dark  hair  and 
white  forehead  of  the  mother,  which  secure  the  infant's  attention 
when  he  begins  to  take  notice  in  the  latter  part  of  the  first  quarter 
year.  The  sensations  that  are  repeated,  however,  soon  cease 
to  be  noticed,  through  loss  of  novelty. 

Close  observation  shows  that  certain  objects,  sounds,  or  colors 
are  attended  to  longer  and  a  greater  number  of  times  than  others 
of  equal  or  even  greater  intensity,  objectively  speaking.  This 
suggests  the  well-known  fact  that  stimuli  are  effective  according 
to  the  sensitiveness  of  the  organism  to  them  rather  than  accord- 
ing to  their  mere  objective  strength.  A  sHght  touch  on  a  boil 
or  a  corn  is  a  stronger  stimulus  than  a  hard  blow  on  some  other 
part ;  in  a  similar  way  individuals  differ  greatly  in  sensitiveness 
to  the  same  sounds,  colors,  and  objects.  As  a  child's  instincts 
develop,  he  becomes  more  sensitive  to  certain  stimuli,  conse- 
quently his  curiosity  is  more  readily  excited  in  some  directions 
than  in  others.  When  a  child's  competitive  instincts  are  strong, 
he  likes  to  hear  of  contests ;  and  when  he  has  been  flying  kites, 
he  likes  to  hear  how  children  in  other  countries  and  scientific 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  CURIOSITY     195 

men  fly  them.  Children's  interest  or  curiosity,  therefore,  changes 
with  the  development  of  new  instincts  and  with  new  experiences. 

The  tendency  to  imitation  and  play  heightens  the  interest  for 
a  time  by  helping  to  disclose  new  characteristics  of  the  object, 
then  decreases  it  by  effectually  removing  the  essential  element  — 
newness.  Though  curiosity  is  thus  continually  destroyed  by 
the  results  of  its  own  action  assisted  by  play,  the  knowledge 
thus  acquired  becomes  the  basis  for  a  fresh  growth  of  curiosity 
and  play  a  little  later.  For  example,  colored  cubes  lose  their 
interest  when  played  with  a  great  deal,  only  to  regain  it  again 
and  again  as  increased  experience  with  other  things  prepares 
for  new  uses  and  the  consequent  observation  of  new  charac- 
teristics. The  child,  after  losing  his  interest  in  looking  at 
and  touching  them,  enjoys  placing  them  in  rows,  or  on  top  of 
each  other,  building  houses  of  them,  counting  their  sides  and 
edges,  comparing  them  with  other  solids,  noting  their  weight 
and  material  as  compared  with  other  cubes,  and  finally  study- 
ing geometrical  relations  of  all  kinds.  Thus  familiarity  with 
the  shape  and  composition  of  the  first  cubes  prepares  the  way 
for  noticing  the  characteristics  of  blocks  differently  shaped 
and  composed,  and  also  lays  a  foundation  in  experience  for  a 
study  of  mathematical  relations. 

Since  nothing  is  noticed  as  new  except  as  it  differs  from  the 
familiar,  every  familiarity  prepares  for  a  fresh  novelty.  The 
materials  produced  by  the  self-destructive  acts  of  curiosity 
therefore  furnish  a  rich  soil  for  the  growth  of  a  more  vigorous 
interest.  This  growth  of  interest  through  increase  in  knowl- 
edge may  be  illustrated  mathematically.  If  you  know  but  two 
characteristics  of  an  object,  you  can  compare  these  with  two  of 
another  object;  but  if  you  know  four,  you  can  compare  with 
four  and  thus  make  sixteen  comparisons;  while  if  you  know 
eight,  you  can  make  sixty-four  comparisons,  or  thirty-two  times 
as  many  as  when  you  knew  only  two.    The  increase  is,  therefore, 


196  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

in  a  geometrical  ratio.  To  him  who  gains  knowledge,  more 
interest  and  knowledge  is  continually  given. 

Curiosity  has,  therefore,  two  means  of  increasing  interest: 
(i)  through  new  stimuli  gained  by  changing  or  enlarging  one's 
environment,  and  (2)  through  increasing  knowledge  of  familiar 
objects  by  the  discovery  of  new  relations.  From  the  psycho- 
logical point  of  view  the  problem  of  interest  is  concerned  chiefly 
with  the  effects  of  experience.  Psychology  shows  how  interest 
may  be  promoted  by  a  changing  or  enlarging  enviromnent,  and 
by  increasing  the  knowledge  of  things  already  in  the  environment. 

From  the  child-study  point  of  view,  however,  the  problem  is 
one  of  development.  It  is  not  to  find  how  any  particular  kind  of 
desirable  interest  may  be  increased  by  external  influences,  but 
to  discover  at  what  stages  of  organic  and  instinctive  development 
the  child  is  especially  sensitive  to  certain  phases  of  his  surround- 
ings, or,  in  other  words,  to  determine  what  interests,  if  any,  are 
naturally  strongest  at  each  stage  of  development.  This  is  a 
very  difficult  matter  because,  as  we  have  already  seen,  previous 
experience  is  such  a  large  factor  in  interest  that  it  is  hard  to  tell 
what  is  interesting  because  of  inner  conditions  of  development, 
and  what  is  interesting  because  of  experience  and  training. 

CHANGES   IN   CURIOSITY  WITH  AGE 

Curiosity  has  so  many  forms,  and  the  impulse  toward  the  new 
so  frequently  alternates  in  children  with  the  love  of  the  familiar, 
as  shown  in  love  for  old  stories,  games,  etc.,  that  the  general 
course  of  development  is  hard  to  trace.  There  are  times  when 
nothing  but  something  new  will  satisfy  the  child ;  then  again, 
he  wants  nothing  but  the  old,  the  familiar.  Such  changes, 
though  irregular,  are  frequent  enough  to  suggest  that  curiosity 
impels  to  the  perfecting  of  a  system  of  knowledge  of  certain 
phases  of  the  environment,  then  to  a  reaching  out  after  a  new 
environment.    Play   and   imitation   make   the   more   obvious 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  CURIOSITY    197 

characteristics  of  this  new  territory  famihar ;  curiosity  then  leads 
to  a  fresh  excursion  into  the  new,  but  there  is  often  a  return  to 
the  old,  which  is  then  reviewed  in  the  light  of  the  new  experience. 

Early  in  life,  and  whenever  a  new  object  is  introduced,  the 
kind  of  curiosity  or  interest  excited  by  the  mere  fact  of  newness 
may  be  called  empirical.  Later,  the  same  object  excites  curiosity, 
not  because  of  the  new  sensations  or  ideas  it  gives,  but  because 
of  the  desire  to  trace  the  relation  of  some  of  its  characteristics 
to  those  of  other  objects.  The  curiosity  or  interest  thus  excited 
may  be  called  speculative  or  relational. 

The  curiosity  of  children  is  doubtless  largely  empirical,  partially 
because  there  are  more  new  things  for  them  to  experience,  while 
adults  who  have  more  knowledge  to  relate  to  whatever  they 
perceive  are  more  concerned  with  speculative  interests. 

Before  a  child  begins  to  talk,  his  interest  is  mainly  in  getting 
new  sensations  and  noting  their  relations ;  but  when  the  instinct 
of  expression  awakens,  names  for  experiences  are  sought  in  the 
constant  question,  "What  is  that?"  which  is  satisfactorily 
answered  by  a  name.  After  various  objects  and  acts  and  the 
names  for  them  become  famihar,  the  interest  changes  to  their 
relations,  and  the  constant  questions  are:  "What  is  that  for?" 
(use),  and  "How  do  you  do  that?"  or  "What  do  you  do  that 
for?"  (how  and  why).  Again,  for  a  time,  interest  goes  from 
objects  and  acts  to  their  origin,  and  the  constant  question  is, 
"Where  did  that  come  from?"  Later,  "Why?"  questions  pre- 
dominate, but  often  with  a  little  different  meaning.  They  refer 
less  to  subjective  reasons  for  doing  a  thing  and  more  to  common 
laws  or  general  truths,  e.g.  "It  is  dark  because  the  sun  has  gone 
down."  Interest  now  is  often  concerned  with  the  applications  of 
truths  that  have  previously  been  learned.  "Is  the  sun  down?" 
—  * '  No . "  —  "  What  makes  it  dark ,  then  ? ' '  This  stage  is  reached 
as  early  as  the  third  or  fourth  year.  Frequently  at  about  this 
time  every  question  regarding  a  general  truth  is  succeeded  by 


ipS  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

another  "Why?"  till  the  puzzled  adult  reaches  what  the  per- 
sistent little  questioner  accepts  as  an  ultimate  reason,  or  the 
circle  is  completed  and  the  first  answer  is  given,  or  in  exaspera- 
tion the  child  is  told  to  "keep  still." 

From  the  earUest  days  of  taking  notice,  movements  and 
actions  are  the  strongest  stimuli  to  curiosity.  This  remains 
true  all  through  life,  but  in  the  greatest  degree  before  entering 
school  and  immediately  after.  Children  of  two  years  use  nearly 
twice  as  large  a  proportion  of  action  words  as  adults.  Professor 
Shaw  found  that  in  school,  the  younger  children,  when  asked  to 
tell  what  they  thought  when  certain  words  were  named,  men- 
tioned actions  more  frequently  than  the  older  ones;  Barnes, 
that  they  were  more  interested  in  the  use  of  things;  and  the 
author  found  that  if  asked  to  give  a  list  of  words,  younger 
children  gave  more  action  words  than  older  children  and  adults. 
Vostrovsky  found  that  actions  were  prominent  in  children's 
own  stories,  and  Kohler,  that  they  remembered  the  action  of 
stories  told  them  better  than  descriptive  details. 

As  to  other  interests,  Vostrovsky  found  that  in  children's 
stories  names,  appearance,  time,  place,  and  possession  are  prom- 
inent; while  Barnes  found  that  in  history  they  questioned  most 
about  cause  and  effect,  who,  why,  personal  detail,  general  detail, 
and  least  about  time  and  truth. 

As  to  objects  of  interest,  various  studies  of  children's  reading 
and  of  their  spontaneous  drawings  indicate  that  they  are  inter- 
ested, in  the  earlier  grades,  in  colors  rather  than  in  form,  and  in 
animals  and  children  rather  than  in  adults. 

As  to  the  mental  powers  appealed  to,  Barnes  found  critical 
inferences  most  numerous  at  twelve  and  thirteen,  and  Lindley, 
interest  in  reasoning  and  puzzles  greatest  at  twelve. 

At  about  twelve,  interest  in  history  greatly  increases,  as  all 
studies  of  reading  interests  show,  probably  because  history  sup- 
plies in  a  representative  form  new  environment  and  experience, 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  CURIOSITY    199 

but  more  particularly  because  the  social  instincts  direct  curiosity 
to  the  study  of  groups  of  people.  A  little  later,  moral  and  reli- 
gious questions  have  a  great  fascination,  probably  because  the 
regulative  instincts  are  developing.  /Esthetic  interest  also  in- 
creases at  this  time. 

Since  curiosity  is  modified  by  every  new  instinct,  changes  in 
curiosity  may  serve  as  signs  of  tlie  development  of  new  instincts. 
The  boy's  interest  in  fables  prepares  him  for  wise  action  in  the 
pursuit  of  his  individual  ends,  and  the  youth's  historical  interest 
in  groups  of  men,  for  performing  his  part  as  a  social  being. 

CURIOSITY  AND   EDUCATION 

Long  ago  Plato  said,  "Curiosity  is  the  mother  of  all  knowl- 
edge" ;  but  too  often  since  then  she  has  been  regarded  as  merely 
the  mother  of  gossip  and  scandal.  The  latter,  however,  are 
illegitimate  children,  resulting  from  poor  feeding  and  union 
with  small  and  unworthy  passions.  The  legitimate  offspring 
of  curiosity  are  interest,  learning,  science,  and  love  of  truth. 

Children  enter  school  as  animated  interrogation  points,  and 
instead  of  having  their  mental  hunger  gratified,  they  are  stuffed 
with  knowledge  they  have  not  asked  for,  and  required  to  answer 
instead  of  being  led  to  question,  until  their  intellectual  appetite 
is  dulled  and  only  the  most  stimulating  diet  appeals  to  them. 
They  are  led  to  study  only  by  the  desire  for  approbation,  or  by 
some  form  of  compulsion  or  reward.  It  is  not  the  truth  they  are 
after,  but  the  words  and  acts  which  will  satisfy  the  teacher; 
hence,  the  slightest  change  in  her  expression  or  tone  of  voice 
often  leads  them  to  modify  their  statements. 

Unfortunately,  curiosity  and  interest,  like  play,  are  often 
identified  with  amusement,  by  many  teachers,  when  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  healthy  curiosity  is  one  of  the  strongest  stimuli  to  effort. 
Of  the  two  ways  of  exciting  curiosity,  that  of  giving  new  expe- 
riences by  showing  or  describing  something  never  seen  before, 


200  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

and  that  of  directing  attention  to  unobserved  qualities  or  rela- 
tions of  familiar  objects,  the  first  is  unfortunately  the  mode 
more  often  used  by  those  who  try  to  interest  children  in  their 
lessons.  In  many  cases,  therefore,  teaching  has  become  nothing 
more  than  the  art  of  amusing.  The  result  is  that  all  the  sweet- 
ness is  taken  out  of  a  subject  before  there  is  anything  of  value 
learned  about  it,  and  subsequent  teachers  find  it  almost  impos- 
sible to  interest  the  children  in  these  unpalatable  and  half -chewed 
materials.  Not  only  has  the  delightful  flavor  of  newness  been 
removed  from  the  subject,  but  the  mental  habit  of  taking  rich 
food  instead  of  working  for  daily  bread  has  been  cultivated, 
until  in  many  ways  the  children  are,  intellectually,  pampered 
weaklings.  Their  curiosity  is  aroused  only  by  intellectual  doses 
highly  seasoned  with  the  new  and  marvelous,  administered  by 
teachers  who  know  of  no  other  way  of  appealing  to  interest. 

The  old-fashioned  discipline  of  rod  and  ferule,  wielded  accord- 
ing to  fixed  rules,  compelled  the  scholastic  prisoners  to  learn 
their  trade,  and  thus  effective  intellectual  workmen  were  often 
turned  out,  who  had  performed  difficult  and  unpleasant  tasks 
till  they  had  no  thought  of  hesitating  at  any  drudgery.  Unwise 
attempts  to  carry  out  the  imperfectly  understood  doctrine  of 
interest  have  developed  intellectual  laziness  and  repugnance 
to  effort. 

Properly  understood  and  applied,  however,  the  doctrine  of 
interest  will  emancipate,  not  enervate,  children  intellectually. 
Just  as  a  free  laborer  does  a  vast  deal  more  work  than  the  most 
closely  watched  slave,  and  does  it  with  a  pleasure  and  self-re- 
spect the  slave  can  never  feel,  so  does  the  child,  working  under 
the  stimulus  of  interest,  accomplish  far  more  intellectually  ana 
morally  than  the  uninterested  urchin  who  slaved  at  his  task 
under  the  watchful  eye  of  the  old-time  teachei. 

Interest  that  is  educationally  valuable  is  not  that  which 
pleases  and  amuses  (though  a  littie  such  interest  is  helpful, 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  CURIOSITY     201 

especially  with  young  children),  but  that  kind  of  interest  which 
causes  effort  to  be  put  forth  in  order  to  satisfy  the  hunger  for 
knowledge.  The  real  test  of  interest  is  not  how  much  pleasure 
do  the  children  get  out  of  the  study,  but  how  much  efort  do  they 
put  forth  in  pursuing  it.  Curiosity,  like  play,  may  be  the  stimu- 
lus to  an  immense  amount  of  what  would  otherwise  be  drudgery. 

The  conditions  most  favorable  for  rendering  curiosity  a  strong 
motive  to  effort  are  (i)  the  perception  of  the  relation  of  what  is 
being  studied  to  familiar  and  interesting  experience  and  knowl- 
edge, and  (2)  receptivity  to  the  kind  of  knowledge  being  gained 
because  it  is  suited  to  the  stage  of  development  the  individual 
has  reached.  Many  other  things  are  helpful,  but  these  are  the 
most  important  essentials.  How  to  bring  about  the  first  condi- 
tion is  the  problem  of  psychology  and  pedagogy,  while  the 
second  condition  can  only  be  secured  through  child-study  in- 
vestigations. 

The  purposes  of  education  must  determine  what  shall  be 
taught;  psychology,  how  or  in  what  order  subjects  shall  be 
taught,  that  each  subject  and  part  of  subject  may  form  a  basis 
of  interest  for  the  next ;  while  child  study  must  say  when  and 
how  certain  teaching  shall  be  given,  in  order  that  the  natural 
curiosity  and  interest  of  each  age  may  be  utiHzed.  The  teacher 
should  use  her  skill  in  associating  studies  with  the  child's  instinc- 
tive tendencies  at  the  time,  and  with  his  more  recent  activities, 
that  there  may  be  no  lack  of  natural,  healthy  interest  regarding 
every  subject  as  it  is  pursued. 

If  properly  appealed  to,  curiosity  alone  is  a  sufficient  motive 
for  the  invasion  of  every  fresh  field  of  knowledge ;  while  imita- 
tion and  play  will  supply  the  practice  and  drill  necessary  to  insure 
continued  possession  of  it.  These  instincts  may  very  properly 
be  supported  by  others,  especially  the  desire  for  approbation 
in  the  earlier  years,  the  pleasures  of  competition,  and  the  desire 
for  results,  in  the  later  years  of  school  life. 


202  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Has  the  search  for  scientific  truths  usually  been  carried  on  in  order 
that  they  might  be  directly  applied  in  practical  life,  or  merely  that  the  truth 
may  be  known?    Mention  some  such  truth  that  has  proved  useful. 

2.  Give  illustrations  of  knowledge  of  environment,  gained  by  yourself 
or  by  children  through  mere  curiosity,  that  will  prove  or  has  proved  usefiil 
later. 

3.  Illustrate  how  stronger  or  newer  stimuli  excite  curiosity. 

4.  Give  examples  of  children  who  are  especially  curious  regarding  certain 
objects,  acts,  or  lines  of  thought. 

5.  Give  illustrations  of  the  relation  of  curiosity  (a)  to  other  instincts, 

(b)  to  past  experience. 

6.  Illustrate  from  your  own  experience  or  observation  how  increase  in 
knowledge  develops  new  phases  of  interest. 

7.  Show  how  interest  may  be  increased  through  new  experience  gained 
by  enlargement  of  mental  environment,  without  changing  one's  location. 

8.  Illustrate  further  how  increased  knowledge  of  familiar  things  has 
increased  the  interest  of  yourself  or  of  others. 

9.  Give  illustrations  of  children's  interest  (o)  in  the  old,  (b)  in  the  new, 

(c)  of  fresh  interest  in  the  old,  after  study  in  other  lines. 

10.  Can  you  determine  what  were  the  causes  of  your  interest  in  certain 
kinds  of  reading  at  different  ages? 

11.  Give  instances  in  which  children  seek  to  give  the  answers  the  teacher 
wants  rather  than  to  find  out  and  state  the  truth. 

12.  Illustrate  what  children  wiU  sometimes  do  of  themselves  in  the  way 
of  investigation  and  study  when  curiosity  is  excited. 

13.  Give  illustrations  of  how  teachers  may  or  have  connected  topics  with 
recent  experiences  and  interesting  activities  outside  of  school. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  curiosity  as  an  instinct,  see  Lindsay,  Mind  in  the  Lower  Animals,  pp. 
252-256 ;  Ribot,  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,  pp.  368-379 ;  Groos,  Play 
of  Animals,  pp.  214-222  ;  Morgan,  Comparative  Psychology,  pp.  297-298. 

For  researches  and  discussions  of  the  interests  of  children,  read,  besides  the 
observations  on  infants,  Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  15-17,  43- 
52,  83-93,  203-212,  222-227,  Vol.  II,  pp.  338-351 ;  Shaw,  Ch.  S.  Mo., 
Vol.  II,  pp.  152-167  ;  Taylor,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  497-511 ;  Laing, 
Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  381-390;  Wissler,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  IV,  pp. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  —  CURIOSITY    203 

139-146;  Fed.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  523-540;  Clapp,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol. 
XLIV,  pp.  799-809 ;  Griffith,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  285-287  ;  O'Shea, 
Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  266-278,  or  N.  E.  A.,  1896,  pp.  873-881; 
Luckey,  N.  E.  A.,  1897,  pp.  284-288 ;  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  67,  96, 
133,  156,  221,  245,  306,  335;  Harrison,  Child  Nature,  chap,  ii;  Com- 
payre,  Vol.  II,  pp.  17-28. 


De  Garmo 
Dewey 
Dnimmond 
Hall  (i,  2,  &  3) 


Later  References 
Books 

King(i) 
Kirkpatrick  (3) 
Kratz 
Magnus 


Sandiford 

Sully 

Swift  (1  &  2) 

Tanner 


Articles 

Anderson,  Roxanna  E.    A  Preliminary  Study  of  the  Reading  Tastes  of 

High  School  Pupils.     Ped.  Sem.,  191 2,  Vol.  19,  pp.  438-460. 
Conradi,  E.    Children's  Interest  in  Words,  Slang,  Stories,  etc.    Ped.  Sem., 

1903,  Vol.  10,  pp.  359-404- 
Giullet,  Cephas.    A  Study  in  Interests.    Ped.  Sem.,  1907,  Vol.  14,  pp. 

322-328,  474-487. 
Hall,  G.  S.,  and  Smith,  T.  L.    Curiosity  and  Interest.     Ped.  Sem.,  1903, 

Vol.  10,  pp.  513-558. 
Thayer,  Alice.    A  Study  of  Children's  Interest  in  Flowers.    Ped.  Sem., 

1905,  Vol.  12,  pp.  107-140. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  -  REGULATIVE 

I.   Moral  Instincts 

PREPAEATORY  STAGE  OF  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT 

The  child's  instincts  are  nearly  as  independent  of  each  other 
and  also  as  dependent  and  as  closely  related  as  are  individuals 
in  the  social  organism.  Each  instinct  stimulates  to  action  for 
its  own  gratification,  just  as  each  man  seeks  his  own  interests. 
The  individual  in  society  learns  that  certain  actions  are  undesir- 
able, because  they  result  in  other  persons  performing  acts  that 
are  unpleasant  to  him.  Out  of  such  experiences  grow  the  laws 
governing  society.  The  child  finds  that  some  instinctive  acts 
are  more  pleasurable  than  others,  or  that  one  kind  of  act  inter- 
feres with  another,  and  thus  learns  tc  regulate  his  conduct.  He  is 
also  impressed  less  directly  with  their  undesirability  by  the  atti- 
tude of  other  people.  For  example,  a  child  who  was  drinking 
water  in  such  a  way  as  to  get  his  dress  wet,  said,  "I  don't  care  if 
it  does  run  down  on  me."  Mamma,  "But  I  care ;  it  isn't  nice, 
and  if  you  do  it  any  more  I  shall  take  your  glass  away."  Child, 
"I  won't  do  it  any  more  then,  never." 

The  child  is  at  first  neither  moral  nor  immoral,  but  unmoral. 
He  is  acting  according  to  his  natural  instincts  when  biting  and 
striking  his  mother  as  much  as  when  he  is  hugging  and  kissing 
her,  and  no  more.  In  both  cases  he  acts  as  his  instincts  and 
feelings  at  the  moment  prompt,  and  to  him  one  act  is  just  as  good 
as  the  other.     Experience,  however,  soon  teaches  him  that  one 

304 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE       205 

kind  of  act  brings  pleasant  results  in  the  way  of  approbation  and 
favors,  while  the  other  brings  him  disapprobation  and  perhaps 
punishment.  He  thus  learns  that  some  acts  are  better  than 
others.  "Better,"  however,  means  to  him  primarily  more  pleas- 
urable in  results  to  himself  rather  than  morally  better.  He  is 
not  kind  or  cruel  in  a  moral  sense,  neither  is  he  truthful  or  un- 
truthful, honest  or  dishonest ;  but  he  readily  learns  to  be  which- 
ever secures  him  the  most  advantages. 

What  habits  of  action  he  shall  form,  or  what  he  shall  come  to 
regard  as  right  or  wrong,  is  wholly  a  matter  of  experience  and 
training.  The  law  of  his  nature  at  this  time  impels  him  to 
conform  to  his  environment  in  such  a  way  as  to  get  as  much 
pleasure  and  as  little  pain  as  possible.  For  about  a  dozen  years 
this  individualistic  law  of  life  holds  almost  complete  sway ;  hence, 
this  is  the  period  during  which  the  child  is  naturally  unmoral. 
It  is  distinctively  a  preparatory  stage  of  moral  development ;  yet 
it  is  not  for  that  reason  any  the  less  important.  The  founda- 
tions of  a  future  less  individualistic  and  more  altruistic  moral 
life  are  being  laid. 

MORAL  TRAINING  DURING  THE  PREPARATORY  STAGE 

In  this  stage  should  be  developed :  (i)  regularity  of  physical 
and  mental  processes,  (2)  the  consciousness  that  it  pays  to  do 
right,  (3)  the  tendency  to  inhibit  impulses,  (4)  to  endure  hard- 
ships, (5)  to  wait  for  future  good,  (6)  to  take  pain  before  pleasure, 
(7)  to  seek  the  satisfaction  of  higher  instincts,  (8)  to  form  right 
habits,  (9)  to  act  from  increasingly  higher  motives,  (10)  to  form 
right  ideals,  (11)  to  obey,  (12)  to  exercise  self-control. 

(i)  Since  regulation  of  action  is  an  important  phase  of  moral 
training,  and  since  unconscious  actions  influence  conscious 
choices,  the  preparation  for  a  moral  life  may  begin  in  infancy. 
The  foundations  of  morality  should  be  laid  by  the  development  of 
regularity  in  the  more  or  less  unconscious  organic  processes  of 


206  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

sleeping,  eating,  and  eliminating  waste  materials  from  the  body. 
Parents  should,  therefore,  seek  to  establish  regularity  in  these 
respects,  not  only  as  a  condition  of  health,  but  as  a  sohd  basis  for 
the  development  of  a  stable,  moral  character.  Individuals  with 
such  habits  are  not  necessarily  more  moral,  but  it  is  easier  for 
them  to  be  so. 

(2)  As  soon  as  the  infant  notices  the  results  of  his  actions, 
consciousness  may  be  utilized  in  the  development  of  moral  habits 
and  the  acquisition  of  moral  truths.  In  doing  this  one  must  see 
to  it  that  right  actions  are  followed  sooner  or  later  by  pleasurable 
results  to  the  child,  and  wrong  actions  by  disagreeable  results, 
because  both  blind  instinct  and  acute  intelligence  impel  to  the 
repetition  of  actions  having  pleasurable  results,  and  the  avoidance 
of  those  whose  results  are  painful.  The  child  should  come  to 
realize  a  fundamental,  though  not  the  highest,  of  moral  truths, 
"It  pays  to  do  right." 

(3)  The  first  step  in  self-control  may  be  taken  by  getting  chil- 
dren to  inhibit,  for  a  short  time,  organic  and  instinctive  im- 
pulses. An  assuring  word  that  causes  a  child  to  stop  crying 
for  food  till  preparations  for  giving  it  to  him  are  completed, 
may  become  a  sign  to  him  that  if  he  is  quiet,  his  wants  will  soon 
be  satisfied,  and  the  time  of  waiting  may  be  gradually  lengthened. 

Care  must  be  taken,  especially  at  first,  that  the  interval  between 
assurance  and  satisfaction  is  short,  or  fretting  will  be  renewed, 
and  the  word  intended  to  quiet  will  become  instead  the  signal  for 
a  period  of  crying.  The  cry  of  the  infant  is  a  most  useful,  in- 
stinctive mode  of  obtaining  parental  help,  but  its  function  is  to 
attract  attention  of  parents  rather  than  to  force  them,  by  its 
continuance,  to  respond.  The  latter  function  is,  however,  very 
readily  taken  up  if  a  long  period  of  crying  is  allowed  to  precede 
the  satisfaction  of  wants.  Moral  development  is  promoted  by 
getting  the  child  to  inhibit  the  crying  impulse  as  soon  as  possible, 
by  quieting  words  and  prompt  rehef ,  if  they  are  to  be  given  at  all. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE       207 

(4)  Repressing  impulses  and  doing  disagreeable  tasks  should 
also  be  encouraged  by  desirable  results  following  such  actions. 
The  child  who  can  be  induced  to  stop  crying  when  hurt,  face 
danger  when  afraid,  or  to  continue  carrying  a  heavy  load  when 
tired,  by  desire  for  the  approval  he  will  get  as  a  ''brave  boy,"  is 
gaining  in  moral  development  When  a  child  can  be  induced 
to  put  forth  effort  to  control  self  or  accomplish  any  task  through 
the  desire  to  satisfy  the  competitive  instinct  by  winning,  he  is 
also  developing  morally.  If,  however,  he  gains  advantages  over 
another,  not  by  effort,  but  by  yielding  to  the  natural  impulse  to 
cry  and  fret  about  the  success  or  advantages  of  others  (as  when 
jealous),  there  is  a  development  of  undesirable  impulses  instead 
of  control,  and  the  effect  is  demoralizing. 

(5)  As  children  grow  older  they  should  learn  that  it  often  pays 
to  delay  the  gratification  of  an  impulse  for  a  time,  in  order  that  a 
greater  pleasure  may  be  experienced  later.  ''If  you  eat  now  you 
can  have  bread  only,  while  if  you  wait  until  dinner  is  ready  you 
may  have  other  things."  "If  you  will  keep  quiet  till  I  get 
through,  you  may  then  look  at  this  and  ask  as  many  questions 
as  you  wish."  "If  you  do  not  buy  candy  to-day  but  save  your 
pennies,  you  can  get  a  doll  next  week."  "  If  you  rest  awhile  and 
wait  till  the  others  are  ready,  I  think  you  Avill  enjoy  your  game 
more." 

(6)  "Work  before  play  and  pain  before  pleasure,^*  is  a  good 
motto.  If  a  disagreeable  task  is  to  be  performed  or  pain  suffered, 
in  connection  with  a  pleasure  or  reward,  it  is  always  better  to 
have  the  pleasure  or  reward  last,  since  anticipation  lightens  the 
pain  and  effort,  perhaps  even  making  the  act  pleasurable,  while 
the  pleasure  afterward  is  enjoyed  all  the  more  because  of  the 
effort  by  which  it  was  obtained.  If  the  order  is  reversed, 
pleasure  is  lessened  by  dread,  and  pain  increased  by  thought 
of  previous  pleasure.  If  every  child  were  led  to  form  the  habit 
of  enjoying  reward  only  after  earning  it,  the  world  would  be 


2o8  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

vastly  happier  and  better.  The  pampering  and  demoralizing 
tendency  to  get  what  has  not  yet  been  earned,  by  going  in  debt, 
gambUng,  or  speculating,  is  the  natural  result  of  a  childhood  that 
has  been  allowed  to  take  the  sweet  first,  then  dodge  the  bitter 
or  to  take  it  with  much  fussing  and  grumbling. 

The  underlying  truth  here  is  that  every  sort  of  satisfaction 
must  be  earned  or  paid  for  in  some  way,  and  the  child's  experience 
should  impress  this  truth  upon  him  along  with  the  truth  that 
most  is  obtained  by  paying  in  advance. 

(7)  The  conscious  states  or  motives  preceding  action,  as  well 
as  those  succeeding,  are  significant  from  the  dawn  of  volition, 
and  increasingly  important  as  an  essential  element  in  moral  acts. 
As  soon  as  an  action  becomes  purposive  rather  than  bHndly  im- 
pulsive, the  aim  is  the  satisfaction  of  some  instinct.  Since  the 
kind  of  instincts  whose  satisfaction  is  most  sought  determines 
in  a  large  measure  the  moral  character  of  an  individual,  it  is 
important  that  the  habit  of  seeking  to  satisfy  the  higher  instincts 
should  be  developed  as  far  as  possible,  even  in  early  childhood. 
If  a  child  chooses  to  gratify  the  higher  social  impulse  of  desire 
for  approval  by  offering  the  best  to  others,  instead  of  gratifying 
the  lower  individualistic  impulse  to  take  the  best  for  himself,  he 
is  forming  a  most  excellent  moral  habit.  If,  however,  his  desire 
for  approval  leads  him  to  say  what  he  does  not  believe,  in  order 
to  secure  the  favor  of  others,  the  effect  is  demoralizing. 

(8)  It  must  never  be  forgotten  that  the  formation  of  habits 
is  the  important  thing  in  the  preparatory  stage  of  moral  develop- 
ment, since  they  will  ultimately  determine  motives  and  ideals. 
If  none  but  the  lowest  motive  will  produce  right  action,  that 
motive  should  be  appealed  to  in  order  that  the  right  action  may 
be  performed.  Again,  no  motive,  however  high,  should  be  ap- 
pealed to,  if  it  is  certain  to  faU  to  call  forth  right  action,  because 
the  separation  of  habits  and  ideals  thus  produced  is  sure  to  dis- 
integrate moral  character.    The  general  rule  to  be  followed  is ; 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE       209 

Be  sure  to  secure  right  action  even  if  a  low  motive  must  be  appealed 
to,  but  always  appeal  to  the  highest  motive  that  will  be  efective.  If 
children  are  forced,  without  arousing  too  much  antagonism  on 
their  part,  to  do  as  they  should  for  a  suJB&cient  length  of  time, 
the  tendency  to  act  in  that  way  becomes  stronger  than  to  act  in 
any  other  way.  They  also  come  to  take  pleasure  in  doing  what 
they  have  developed  a  tendency  to  do,  though  at  first  it  was  not 
agreeable.  On  the  other  hand,  if  matters  are  so  arranged  that 
right  doing  always  has  pleasanter  results  than  wrong  doing, 
right  actions  are  consciously  chosen  and  more  quickly  become 
habitual. 

Moral  progress  is  measured,  not  only  by  increase  in  the 
number  of  right  acts,  but  by  increased  tendency  to  perform  acts 
from  higher  motives.  A  child  who  is  polite  for  a  long  time, 
through  fear  of  punishment,  may  remain  polite  because  of  the 
social  advantages  thus  secured.  Later,  he  may  be  polite  to  one 
outside  of  his  circle  from  the  kindly  motive  of  encouraging  him,  or 
from  a  genuine  feeling  of  brotherhood.  In  this,  as  in  other  cases, 
a  habit  formed  from  a  low  motive  may  make  it  possible  for  a 
higher  motive  to  be  effective.  On  the  other  hand,  the  habit  of 
politeness  may  be  more  quickly  and  firmly  estabhshed  by  appeal 
to  the  imitative  instinct  and  the  desire  for  approval. 

(9)  In  general,  the  motives  to  action  may  be  ranked  as  follows : 
the  pleasurable,  as  higher  than  the  disagreeable  of  the  same 
general  kind,  and  the  instincts  to  be  satisfied,  in  this  gradation 
from  lower  to  higher,  —  individuaUstic,  adaptive,  racial,  social, 
regulative.  Of  course  some  forms  of  each  of  these  instincts  are 
higher  than  some  in  a  class  above  them ;  for  instance,  the  social 
desire  for  approbation  is  not  only  lower  than  the  social  desire 
to  be  helpful  to  others,  but  also  lower  than  the  racial  desire  to 
care  for  children ;  hence,  the  ranking  given  above  is  subject  to 
many  changes,  according  to  the  form  of  each  instinct  involved. 

Any  substitution  of  a  lower  motive  for  a  higher  which  has 


2IO  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

hitherto  been  effective,  is  demoralizing.  A  man  is,  therefore, 
degraded  by  voting  even  his  party  ticket  for  money  or  by  re- 
ceiving pay  for  granting  justice.  Personal  service  is  often  un- 
justly regarded  as  one  of  the  lowest  occupations,  probably  be- 
cause those  engaged  in  it  are  supposed  to  be  actuated  wholly  by 
individualistic  motives,  in  performing  acts  that  are,  in  their 
nature,  social.  Keeping  a  boarding  house  is  not  dishonorable, 
but  it  is  often  hard  for  one  who  has  hospitably  entertained  friends 
a  great  deal,  to  receive  guests  for  pay  without  feeling  that  she 
is  in  part  doing  for  a  lower  motive  what  she  has  been  in  the  habit 
of  doing  only  from  a  higher  motive.  Ministers,  doctors,  and 
teachers  are  retrograding  morally  if  they  are  thinking  more  of 
the  pay  they  are  to  receive  and  less  of  the  good  they  are  trjdng 
to  do.  Mechanics  and  merchants  are  advancing  morally  as  they 
think  more  and  more  of  doing  their  work  well  and  of  rendering 
good  service  to  the  world. 

Undoubtedly,  most  acts  are  performed  from  mixed  motives, 
but  usually  one  stands  out  in  the  individual's  mind  as  the  con- 
trolling factor.  When  an  individual  is  consciously  acting  for  a 
high  motive,  it  is  either  insulting  or  degrading  to  try  to  make  a 
lower  one  prominent  in  his  consciousness.  To  offer  for  social 
favors  similar  favors  is  all  right,  but  to  let  another  understand 
that  he  will  gain  financially  by  social  favors  or  by  philanthropy 
is  either  insulting  or  demoralizing. 

To  impute  a  higher  motive  to  an  act  that  is  really  being  per- 
formed from  a  lower,  is  sometimes  almost  equally  bad  in  its 
effects,  because  the  individual  is  often  thus  led  to  believe  that  he 
is  really  acting  benevolently,  when  his  act  is  wholly  selfish.  Men 
who  pay  a  low  price  for  a  good  supper,  therefore,  often  pride 
themselves  on  their  benevolence  to  the  church  or  other  cause. 

(lo)  Ideals  are  helpful  in  childhood  in  forming  habits,  but 
are  not  usually  strong  enough  to  be  depended  upon  to  produce 
right  action,  except  as  they  are  founded  on  well-established  habits 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE       211 

or  supported  by  expectation  of  desirable  consequences.  For 
example,  a  little  girl,  with  clear  ideals  as  to  being  helpful,  thought- 
ful, and  pleasant,  and  a  genuine  desire  to  be  so,  rarely  holds 
herself  to  those  ideals  a  whole  day,  but  did  so  for  over  a  week, 
when  she  thought  a  promised  hammock  was  not  likely  to  come  till 
she  had  been  pleasant  for  some  time.  Unconscious  habits  of 
right  action,  as  well  as  pleasurable  results  of  acting  from  higher 
motives,  are  important  factors  in  the  building  of  effective  moral 
ideals.  The  training  given  in  the  preparatory  stage  should  not  be 
concerned  so  much  with  the  formation  of  conscious  ideals,  which 
at  this  time  are  usually  very  changeable,  as  with  the  habits  and 
feelings  that  underlie  them  and  make  them  prominent  and 
effective  forces  in  the  next  stage  of  moral  development. 

(11)  Obedience,  which  is  regarded  by  many  as  the  chief  virtue 
of  childhood,  is  important  not  for  its  own  sake,  but  for  what  it 
involves.  It  necessarily  involves  inhibiting  and  controlling  im- 
pulses of  all  kinds,  and  produces  habits  of  acting  according  to 
law.  This  is  important,  since  in  a  state  or  an  individual  any  kind 
of  government  or  law  is  likely  to  be  better  than  anarchy.  These 
advantages  result  only  when  the  one  who  enforces  the  obedience 
is  entirely  consistent,  for  otherwise  the  advantages  of  occasional 
inhibitions  are  neutralized  by  the  fact  that  no  settled  habits  of 
action  are  formed. 

Obedience  to  personal  authority  is  in  reality  conforming  to 
a  more  or  less  artificial  environment,  and  it  fits  for  a  useful  and 
effective  life  in  proportion  as  this  artificial  environment,  which 
inflicts  pain  and  pleasure  for  the  various  acts  performed,  is  in 
accordance  with  natural  laws  and  moral  ideals.  If  it  results  in 
making  good  acts  painful  and  evil  ones  pleasurable,  and  in  hatred 
for  law,  it  is  distinctly  demoralizing  in  its  effects,  as  is  also  the 
case  when  only  lower  motives  for  obedience  are  appealed  to.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  personal  authority  is  consistent  and 
natural,  so  that  obedience  involves  little  more  than  conformity 


212  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

to  the  essentials  of  the  natural  environment  of  the  child,  the 
effects  are  decidedly  good,  because  right  habits  are  more  quickly 
and  effectively  developed,  and  natural  results  that  would  be  too 
intangible  or  remote  to  be  effective  are  emphasized  or  made  real 
and  immediate  by  substitution.  Authority  should  prevent  the 
child  from  performing  acts  whose  consequences  would  be  very 
serious  or  fatal.  K  they  are  immediate,  but  not  serious,  he 
should  be  warned,  then  allowed  to  perform  the  act  and  receive 
the  natural  consequences.  For  example,  a  child  should  not 
be  prevented  from  touching  something  hot,  but  he  should  not  be 
allowed  to  eat  poison. 

The  person  who  exercises  authority  is  also  an  important 
addition  to  the  child's  environment,  and  exerts  great  influence 
for  good  or  ill  by  his  personality,  as  well  as  by  the  way  in  which 
he  exercises  authority  and  calls  attention  to  higher  or  lower 
motives  of  conduct. 

(12)  It  should  be  clearly  recognized  by  every  one  in  authority 
that  obedience  is  only  a  means  to  an  end,  the  end  always  being 
self-control.  Strict  control  by  another,  till  habits  of  action  are 
formed,  is  often,  for  a  young  or  perverted  child,  the  best  prepara- 
tion for  self-control,  for  it  makes  his  habits  his  allies,  so  that  he 
has  what  he  lacked  before  —  the  power  of  controlling  himself. 
Arrest  of  development,  however,  always  results  if  the  power  of 
self-control  is  not  given  a  chance  for  exercise  soon  after  it  is 
developed.  Authority  should  enforce  obedience  in  one  field 
of  action  after  another,  and  then  leave  the  child  free  to  control 
the  field  that  has  been  conquered.  Obedience  is  a  temporary 
and  immature  virtue,  which  becomes  mature  and  lasting  only 
when  it  grows  into  free  self-control,  by  appropriating  outer  laws 
and  making  them  inner  standards  of  conduct. 

If  children  are  freed  from  personal  authority,  they  must  as  a 
rule  be  responsible  for  the  natural  consequences  of  their  acts; 
otherwise  freedom  is  disastrous. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE       213 
TRANSITION   STAGE   OF  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT 

Up  to  about  twelve  years  of  age  the  moral  condition  is  almost 
wholly  the  result  of  environment  and  training.  These  may  make 
the  child  into  the  semblance  of  an  angel  or  an  imp,  yet  he  can  be 
neither.  He  is  not  essentially  good  or  bad,  because  though  his 
actions  have  that  form,  they  have  not  that  spirit.  Every  action 
is  the  result  of  an  impulse,  a  habit,  or  a  choice,  which  has  for  its 
end  the  pleasure  or  advantage  of  self  in  some  way.  This  is 
the  one  law  governing  the  child's  conscious  action,  whatever 
instinct  or  motive  is  involved,  and  however  remote  or  concealed 
the  advantage  to  self  may  be.  If  well  trained,  the  child  has 
learned  to  find  his  pleasure  in  acts  of  politeness  and  kindness, 
and  if  ill  trained,  in  rudeness  and  cruelty ;  but  in  either  case  the 
action  is  fundamentally  for  his  own  ends,  not  for  the  good  or 
hurt  of  another. 

With  the  dawn  of  pubescence,  however,  a  new  instinct  —  the 
racial  — •  emerges.  In  its  very  nature  this  instinct  impels  to 
action  for  others  rather  than  for  self.  The  inner  law  which  says, 
*'Act  for  yourself,"  is  now  for  the  first  time  opposed  by  the  law 
which  says,  "Act  for  others."  The  choice  is  no  longer  merely 
between  possible  advantages  for  self,  or  ways  of  getting  them, 
but  between  acting  for  self  or  for  others.  Kind  and  selfish  acts 
are  now,  for  the  first  time,  morally  kind  or  selfish,  for  they  rep- 
resent the  free  choice  of  actions  for  self  or  for  others.  The 
individual  has  begun  to  live  the  life,  not  merely  of  the  individual, 
but  also  of  the  race. 

If  he  has  been  prepared  for  this  by  cooperative  games  in 
which  he  acts  for  the  good  of  the  group  rather  than  for  his  own 
exaltation,  and  if  his  training  has  been  such  that  he  already  has 
the  habit  of  acting  for  the  advantage  of  others,  then  there  is  no 
break  in  the  moral  progress.  Figuratively  speaking,  the  racial 
instinct  infuses  life  into  the  moral  mechanism,  the  wheels  revolve 


214  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

more  rapidly,  and  the  engineer  begins  to  direct  its  course  accord- 
ing to  his  own  judgment,  instead  of  merely  obeying  orders  or 
following  impulses.  The  youth  is  no  longer  merely  an  individual, 
but  one  of  the  world's  forces,  and  he  feels  the  obligation,  not 
merely  to  live,  but  to  do.  It  is  no  longer  himself  and  the  world, 
but  himself  as  a  part  of  the  world.  He  begins  to  feel  as  never 
before  his  own  responsibility  for  that  self.  The  old  impulse  to  get 
all  he  can  for  self  is  partially  replaced  by  the  impulse  to  be  all 
that  he  can  for  himself  and  to  do  all  that  he  can  for  the  world. 

This  is  the  age  of  idealistic  imitation  and  of  ideals.  Works 
of  art,  heroic  Uves,  and  religious  ceremonies  take  on  a  new  mean- 
ing. Ambitions  and  ideals  are  no  longer  dependent  on  the  imme- 
diate environment,  but  the  most  beautiful,  the  noblest,  and  the 
highest  are  chosen  from  the  larger  world  of  history,  literature, 
and  art.  In  the  earlier  stage  of  this  wider  life,  the  most  attractive 
ideals  are  frequently  very  crude.  Boys  are  most  appealed  to  by 
action,  power,  and  courage;  hence  not  merely  history,  but  all 
kinds  of  stories  of  adventure  in  which  marvels  of  skill  and  bravery 
are  shown,  are  their  delight.  Such  types  of  character  as  are  here 
represented  are  sometimes  imitated  regardless  of  the  nature  of 
the  actions  in  which  they  appear. 

With  girls,  there  is  something  of  the  same  attraction  toward 
the  strange  and  wonderful,  but  the  more  passive  virtues  of  love 
and  devotion  under  trying  circumstances  are  most  interesting; 
hence  romantic  stories  are  much  in  favor  with  girls  at  this  age. 

This  is  a  period  of  change  in  attitude  toward  ideals,  which 
are  for  a  while  often  contradictory  and  variable.  It  is  a  time 
of  transition  from  personal  authority  to  abstract  law,  during 
which  there  may  be  considerable  lawlessness,  especially  in  cases 
where  control  has  been  entirely  external.  The  rules  of  the  game 
and  the  unformulated  rules  imposed  by  the  customs  and  public 
sentiment  of  the  class,  school,  gang,  or  society,  are  usually 
observed  with  the  greatest  care.     The  social  customs  of  polite 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE       215 

society  and  fashion  in  dress  are  often  first  despised  and  flagrantly 
violated,  then  respected  and  most  slavishly  followed.  Laws  of 
state  come  to  be  regarded  in  a  different  light,  and  principles  of 
morality  take  on  an  entirely  new  meaning.  Laws  of  all  kinds 
are  viewed,  not  simply  from  the  standpoint  of  personal  interest, 
but  as  a  part  of  the  larger  life  of  the  world  now  revealed. 

MORAL   TRAINING   IN  THE   TRANSITION  PERIOD 

There  can  be  no  moral  action  where  the  individual  does  not 
have  the  chance  to  choose  for  himself ;  hence,  if  genuine  morality 
develops  at  this  period,  it  must  be  through  self -direction.  The 
second  essential  is  plenty  of  ideals  for  imitation ;  the  third,  good 
companions;  and  fourth,  wholesome  public  sentiment  in  school, 
class,  and  social  circles. 

(i)  Self-direction  does  not  mean  that  no  authority  shall  be 
exercised  over  the  youth,  but  that  the  authority  shall  not  be 
merely  that  of  a  person  arbitrarily  dictating  and  enforcing  what 
the  youth  shall  do.  Personal  authority,  however  valuable  in 
a  previous  stage,  especially  in  the  early  years,  must  now  be 
relaxed,  and  example  and  advice,  preferably  in  the  form  of 
suggestion,  substituted.  There  is  never  a  time  when  personal  au- 
thority of  parents  and  teachers  counts  for  so  little,  and  personal 
character  for  so  much.  Arbitrary  authority  is  ridiculed,  evaded, 
defied,  or  shamefacedly  yielded  to  as  unworthy  the  developing 
man.  At  the  same  time  the  youth  is  a  most  ardent  hero  wor- 
shiper and  imitator  of  what  to  him  is  ideal. 

Commands  and  rules  should  be  based  on  general  principles, 
and  should  not  be  numerous  or  cover  minute  details  of  conduct. 
The  youth  should  be  allowed  to  learn  through  his  own  experiences 
many  of  the  truths  of  nature  and  life.  This  is  the  time  of  all 
others  when  outer  laws  should  be  adopted  as  inner  standards  of 
action,  and  are  likely  to  be,  if  they  are  founded  on  broad  genera] 
principles  and  prepared  for  by  previous  training. 


2i6  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

Under  wise  guidance,  this  is  also  a  favorable  time  for  giving 
practice  in  making  and  executing  laws,  or,  in  other  words,  for 
the  introduction  of  some  measure  of  self-government.  At  this 
age,  when  personal  authority  is  losing  its  power,  when  the 
attitude  toward  law  is  changing,  and  when  principles  of  action 
for  hfe  are  being  chosen,  nothing  will  help  more  in  producing  re- 
gard for  laws  and  a  feeling  of  obligation  to  obey  them,  than  expe- 
rience in  making  and  executing  them.  ResponsibiHty  of  some 
kind  in  which  the  youth  has  perfect  freedom  of  choice,  but  must 
take  the  consequences,  is  the  kind  of  freedom  needed,  rather  than 
that  in  which  he  is  free  to  choose,  but  is  at  the  same  time  shielded 
from  the  results  of  his  choice. 

(2)  The  ideals,  early  in  this  stage,  must  be  personal.  Reading 
is  their  great  source  at  this  time,  especially  for  boys.  Nearly 
every  boy,  however,  finds  one  or  more  heroes  in  his  local  environ- 
ment, usually  in  an  older  man  or  sometimes  in  a  woman.  Some 
of  these  may  be  partial  ideals,  as  of  strength  or  skill  or  beauty 
or  knowledge ;  but  one  is  likely  to  be  a  moral  ideal,  the  embodi- 
ment of  all  that  is  noble  and  worthy.  Girls  are  almost  sure  to 
find  some  such  ideal  in  an  older  woman,  and  often  the  feeHng 
inspired  is  not  unlike  that  felt  later  for  a  lover. 

The  choice  of  such  personal  ideals  by  youths  and  maidens 
cannot  readily  be  directed  and  controlled,  and  one  can  only  hope 
that  it  will  be  fortunate.  The  actions  of  such  chosen  demi-gods 
and  goddesses  are  often,  unconsciously  to  themselves,  the  source 
of  keenest  joy  and  grief  to  their  admirers,  whose  whole  future 
life  is  not  infrequently  molded  by  them. 

Training  in  the  choice  of  moral  ideals  is  best  given  by  present- 
ing instances  of  heroism  and  virtue  in  history  and  story,  and 
dwelling  on  them  long  enough  to  stir  admiration  but  without 
any  preaching.  Formal  statements  and  discussion  of  general  prin- 
ciples of  morality  are  also  often  valuable  as  giving  youths  clearer 
and  better  standards  of  action.     Care  must  be  taken  not  to 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE       217 

interfere  with  freedom  of  choice  by  exhortation  and  urging; 
for  in  their  very  nature  ideals  must  be  freely  chosen  by  the  in- 
dividual because  they  appeal  to  something  within  him,  and  not 
because  somebody  else  finds  them  good.  The  teacher's  art  con- 
sists in  presenting  them  in  a  form  likely  to  be  attractive.  If 
principles  of  conduct  are  stated  by  one  who  holds  a  hero's  place 
in  the  minds  of  his  hearers,  or  are  given  as  having  been  practiced 
by  a  hero,  they  are  more  likely  to  be  accepted  than  if  simply 
stated  and  urged  for  acceptance. 

Every  youth  should  have  opportunity  and  encouragement  to 
do  something  toward  carrying  out  his  ideals.  If,  to  do  so,  he 
must  sacrifice  self  to  some  extent,  all  the  better.  This  is  pre- 
eminently the  time  for  developing  altruism  in  deed  as  well  as  in 
thought.  The  youth  should  now  attain  to  the  higher  stage  of 
doing  right,  even  when  it  seems  sure  not  to  pay. 

(3)  Companions,  especially  chums,  are  chosen  by  youths 
and  maidens  themselves,  and  only  incidentally  can  the  educator 
determine  these  choices.  Boys  more  often  have  a  group  of 
companions,  and  girls  a  single  chum,  with  whom  they  wish  to 
be  every  moment  while  the  intimacy  lasts,  which  may  be  for 
days  or  for  years.  Associations  with  these  companions  may  ex- 
ercise greater  moral  influence  on  yoimg  persons  than  association 
with  adults. 

(4)  The  public  sentiment  of  school  and  class,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  an  emanation  from  companions,  is  to  some  extent 
under  the  control  of  the  wise  teacher.  He  should  not  only  know 
what  it  is,  and  make  use  of  it  in  governing  the  school,  but  he 
should  mold  it  into  a  finer  and  nobler  form.  The  general  moral 
tone  of  a  neighborhood,  a  school,  or  a  society  should  also  be  one 
of  the  most  important  considerations  in  placing  a  youth,  for 
nothing  more  surely  determines  his  future  character. 


2i8  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

II.  Religious  Instincts 

PREPARATORY   STAGE   OF   RELIGIOUS  DEVELOPMENT 

The  credulity  and  trustfulness  of  children,  and  their  dramatic 
and  symboHc  tendencies  during  the  period  of  childhood,  make  it 
possible  to  impart  to  them  the  forms  of  any  religion.  Any  kind 
of  religious  instruction,  especially  that  which  involves  observing 
and  taking  part  in  religious  ceremonies  during  childhood,  leaves 
a  permanent  impression  upon  the  mind  and  heart.  The  theolog- 
ical beliefs  taught  may  later  be  utterly  rejected  by  the  intellect, 
as  are  fairy  and  ghost  stories ;  but  the  forms,  phrases,  and  cere- 
monies still  stir  the  heart. 

It  is  perfectly  evident  that  there  can  be  no  comprehension  of 
abstract  theology  during  this  period,  though  some  sort  of  crude 
doctrine  or  cosmology  is  needed  to  satisfy  the  child's  questions 
regarding  causes  and  reasons.  That  the  deeper  reMgiow?,  feelings 
cannot  be  aroused  during  childhood  is  less  evident,  but  scarcely 
less  certain.  The  child  has  great  capacity  for  fear  and  faith, 
which  are  important  elements  in  reverence  and  worship.  He 
also  has  a  strong  tendency  to  love  whatever  brings  him  pleasure. 
What  he  lacks  is  the  vital  element  of  religion  in  its  higher  form, 
the  impulse  to  self-surrender  —  the  spirit  which  says,  "Do  with 
me  as  thou  wilt."  Every  instinct  of  the  child  says,  "  Do  for  me  as 
I  wish,  and  I  will  love  and  serve  thee."  This  sentiment,  however, 
is  not  greatly  different  from  much  of  that  shown  forth  in  the  Old 
Testament,  though  it  is,  from  the  deeper  sentiment  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  and  of  the  sacred  books  of  other  great 
religions. 

RELIGIOUS   TRAINING  IN  CHILDHOOD 

The  training  should  not  be  predominantly  intellectual,  for 
the  child  is  incapable  of  forming  abstract  religious  conceptions, 
and  the  ideas  that  he  does  form  are  almost  sure  to  change  later. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE       219 

An  element  of  mystery  in  forms  and  ceremonies  also  makes  them 
far  more  fascinating  and  impressive  to  the  child  than  any  acts 
which  he  thinks  he  understands.  In  general,  therefore,  training 
during  this  period  should  be  of  the  heart  rather  than  of  the 
head,  and  perhaps  even  more  of  the  hand,  i.e.,  a  training  in 
doing,  or,  in  other  words,  taking  part  in  religious  forms. 

The  training  must  vary  according  to  the  kind  of  religion  for 
which  the  child  is  being  prepared.  As  a  preparation  for  all 
kinds  of  reUgion,  however,  the  moral  training  previously  de- 
scribed and  the  cultivation  of  the  spirit  of  reverence  are  distinctly 
helpful. 

The  religious  training  of  Catholics  is  a  most  admirable  prep- 
aration for  that  rehgion  which  is  based  on  authority.  The  large 
number  of  symbols  and  the  ceremonies  suggesting  unexplained 
mysteries,  in  which  the  children  take  some  part  at  stated  times, 
are  woven  into  their  life  in  a  way  which  makes  them  an  in- 
destructible part  of  it.  They  are  thus  prepared  for  accepting 
whatever  is  taught  by  the  embodiment  of  all  this  mystery  — 
the  church  and  its  priests,  who  are  beings  apart  from  other  men. 

The  religious  training  of  Protestantism  is  often  far  less  effective, 
because  it  seeks  to  be  more  intellectual  and  to  teach  absolute 
truths  instead  of  symbols  of  unexplainable  mysteries.  It  appeals 
far  less  to  the  symbolic  and  dramatic  tendencies  of  childhood, 
which  are  then  strongest.  Authority  of  person  or  book  is  the 
basis  of  teaching,  because  most  of  what  is  taught  cannot  be 
brought  within  the  child's  experience.  Since,  however,  religion 
is  usually  taught  as  a  personal  matter,  reason  is  continually 
appealed  to.  The  child  is  almost  compelled  to  think  and  feel, 
if  taught  that  not  the  things  he  does,  but  his  mental  states  when 
doing  them,  are  the  important  factors  in  religion.  In  thus  ignor- 
ing the  strongest  instincts  of  childhood  (symbolic  and  dramatic 
tendencies),  and  in  enforcing  authority  while  appealing  to  reason, 
and  in  tr3dng  to  make  the  child  subjective  instead  of  objective, 


220  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Protestantism  has  a  difficult  task,  and  it  is  a  wonder  that  it 
succeeds  as  well  as  it  does.  The  changes  needed  to  make  Protes- 
tant religious  instruction  more  effective  during  this  period  are, 
on  the  negative  side,  to  cease  trying  to  give  children  much  theo- 
logical instruction  at  this  time  or  to  make  them  consciously  and 
subjectively  religious,  and  on  the  positive  side,  to  give  more  op- 
portunity for  children  to  take  part  in  whatever  religious  forms 
and  ceremonies  are  practiced,  to  inculcate  reverence  for  sacred 
things  in  connection  with  the  development  of  moral  habits. 

For  this  period,  the  cruder  and  more  objective  religion  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  some  of  the  narratives  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, are  far  more  suitable  than  the  finer  and  more  subjective 
teaching  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  and  of  the  psalms.  Few 
stories  in  all  literature  can  be  compared  with  those  of  the  Old 
Testament  as  instruments  of  moral  and  religious  instruction, 
and  their  moral  value  remains,  whatever  belief  is  held  regarding 
their  origin  and  literal  truth. 

Without  entering  into  details,  the  great  thing  in  religious 
training  before  twelve  years  of  age  is  not  to  make  children  reli- 
gious in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word,  but  to  prepare  them  for 
becoming  religious  by  cultivating  feelings  and  habits  which  will 
be  in  accordance  with  the  religious  impulse  when  it  is  felt.  In 
doing  this,  religious  conceptions  should  be  left  in  a  crude,  plastic 
form,  that  they  may  be  molded  to  fit  the  broader  life  of  the 
individual,  instead  of  having  to  be  torn  out  of  the  mind  and 
replaced  by  others,  to  which  early  feelings  and  habits  do  not  so 
readily  attach  themselves. 

THE  PERIOD    OF   RELIGIOUS  AWAKENING 

During  the  adolescent  period,  when  the  dawning  parental 
instincts  impel  the  youth  to  act  not  merely  for  self,  but  as  a  part 
of  the  world  and  for  the  good  of  the  world,  he  is  driven  to  consider 
not  merely  laws,  people,  and  institutions,  but  also  the  Power  and 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE       221 

Intelligence  lying  back  of  it  all.  At  this  stage,  when  idealistic 
imitation  is  so  strong,  and  impulses  of  self-sacrifice  are  stirring 
the  nature  of  the  youth,  the  Supreme  Ideal  of  power,  wisdom, 
and  goodness  can  scarcely  fail  to  attract  him  and  arouse  aspiration 
and  devotion.  The  vital  breath  has  come,  and  this  is  the  time 
of  all  others  for  the  development  of  genuine  religion ;  hence,  it 
is  not  strange  that  this  is  the  period  during  which  by  far  the 
larger  number  of  people  become  consciously  religious.  Space 
does  not  permit  a  full  treatment  of  this  topic ;  hence,  it  must  be 
omitted,  or  studied  in  the  references  cited  below. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Give  illustrations  of  difference  among  various  nations  and  among 
different  children,  as  to  ideas  of  right  and  wrong. 

2.  Should  children  be  allowed  to  do  a  great  deal  of  lunching  between 
meals?  Why?  Mention  several  habits  not  usually  considered  moral, 
which  may  be  a  basis  for  moral  action. 

3.  lUvistrate  how  children  may  be  taught  that  it  pays  to  do  right. 

4.  Is  there  any  moral  value  in  having  a  child  wait  until  others  have  been 
served  at  the  table?  Why?  Illustrate  further  how  the  power  to  inhibit 
impulses  may  be  developed. 

5.  Have  hard  work  and  difficult  games  a  moral  value?  Why?  Give 
specific  illustrations. 

6.  Do  children's  savings  banks  have  any  moral  effects?    Why? 

7.  Is  there  a  good  psychological  basis  for  the  custom  of  having  dessert 
at  the  close  instead  of  at  the  beginning  of  the  meal?  A  teacher  said,  "  I 
will  read  you  a  good  story ;  then  I  shall  expect  you  to  study  very  hard  the 
rest  of  the  afternoon."    Was  she  wise?    Why? 

8.  A  little  girl  ate  very  slowly  because  she  did  not  wish  a  visitor  to  think 
her  greedy.  What  instinct  was  uppermost  in  that  case?  Give  other 
examples  of  the  conflict  of  instinctive  impulses. 

9.  Mention  some  cases  in  which  you  think  it  best  to  get  right  habits  of 
action  even  by  means  of  low  motives,  and  other  cases  in  which  higher  instincts 
may  be  aroused. 

10.  Indicate  whether  the   following   acts  were  elevating  or  degrading 
morally,    (a)  Mrs.  Burnett,  when  a  little  girl,  would  not  say  a  certain  name 


222  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

was  pretty,  though  she  thought  the  lady  asking  her  would  be  very  much 
hurt  if  she  did  not.  (b)  A  boy  took  from  a  dish  the  largest  and  reddest 
apple  before  passing  it  to  a  visitor,  (c)  A  little  girl  who  carefully  covered  a 
younger  sister  who  had  fallen  asleep  was,  upon  the  retiu-n  of  her  parents, 
given  ten  cents  by  her  father.  The  next  time  her  parents  went  away  she 
got  her  Uttle  sister  to  lie  down  and  be  covered,  hoping  to  get  another  ten 
cents,  (d)  People  who  have  been  very  hospitable,  frequently  after  their 
neighborhood  has  become  a  siunmer  resort,  show  kindness  to  strangers  for 
pay  only. 

Children  who  are  working  well  in  school  are  sometimes  offered  a  valuable 
prize  for  the  best  work.  Is  the  effect  the  same  when  the  prize  is  money  as 
when  it  is  opportunity  for  further  study  ? 

What  is  the  effect  of  offering  a  half  holiday  for  good  attendance  ?  What 
of  offering  a  treat  such  as  candy? 

Sometimes  a  child  is  induced  to  tell  of  the  misdemeanors  of  others  by 
threats  of  punishment  or  offers  of  reward,  and  in  other  cases  the  attempt  is 
made  to  get  a  child  to  tell  by  showing  him  that  the  good  of  the  school  makes 
it  necessary.    What  is  the  moral  effect  in  the  two  cases? 

Bring  up  for  discussion  other  cases  of  substituting  or  mixing  of  motives 
and  the  moral  effects  of  the  same. 

11.  Illustrate  the  fact  that  ideals,  only,  cannot  usually  be  depended  upon 
to  govern  the  actions  of  young  children. 

12.  Give  instances  in  which  natural  results  are  best  for  children,  and  others 
in  which  authoritative  punishment  or  reward  is  best. 

Give  illustrations  of  temporary  authority  leading  to  self-control  and  of  too 
long  continued  authority  leading  to  arrest  of  development. 

13.  Report  from  yoiir  own  experience  or  observation  changes  in  feeling 
and  attitude  toward  moral  questions  early  in  the  teens. 

14.  Describe  the  results  of  experiments  in  self-government  of  which  you 
have  known,  also  the  effects  of  having  to  bear  responsibility  of  any  kind 
either  at  home  or  in  school. 

15.  Recall  as  many  as  you  can  of  the  moral  ideals  that  you  formed  from 
the  people  around  you  or  from  reading. 

16.  Give  illustrations  from  experience  or  observation  of  the  moral  influ- 
ence of  companions  upon  a  child. 

17.  Indicate  some  of  the  ways  in  which  sentiments  of  honor,  truthfulness, 
and  kindness,  or  other  sentiments,  may  be  developed  in  a  schooL 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE        223 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  moral  and  religious  instincts  and  their  prominence  at  puberty,  see 
Marshall,  chaps,  ix,  x,  and  xiv ;  Chadbourne,  chaps,  xi  and  xii ;  Ribot, 
pp.  289-377;  Leuba,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  309-385;  Coe, 
Trans.  III.  Ch.  S.  Soc,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  97-108 ;  also  "  The  Spiritual 
Life,"  Gale,  Jr.  Ch.  and  Ad.,  September,  1900,  pp.  17-25 ;  Jr.  Ch.  and 
Ad.,  January,  1902;  Starbuck,  Psychology  of  Religion,  or  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  268-314;  James,  Varieties  of  Religious  Experi- 
ences; Dawson,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  221-258,  and  Am.  Jr.  Psych., 
Vol.  XI,  pp.  181-224;  Stanley,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  254-278. 

On  early  moral  and  religious  development  and  training,  see  Compayre, 
Vol.  II,  chaps.  V  and  vi ;  Harrison,  chaps,  iv,  vi,  vii,  and  viii ;  Wiggin, 
pp.  141-165;  SuUy,  chaps,  vii  and  viii;  Chrisman,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol. 
Ill,  pp.  516-528;  Van  Liew,  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  551-559;  also  Malle- 
son,  Winterbum,  and  Proudfoot. 

For  investigations  of  children's  moral  and  religious  ideas,  see  Barnes,  Studies 
in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  270-271,  299-300,  332-337,  344-351,  366-367,  Vol. 
II,  pp.  62-70,  203-217,  283-307,  308-313,  323-337 ;  Schallenberg,  Ped. 
Sem.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  87-96;  A.  G.  Spencer,  Century  Mag.,  Vol.  XIX, 
p.  238 ;  Barnes,  Ed.,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  387-395,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  72-75 ; 
Osborn,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  143-146 ;  Sears,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VI, 
pp.  159-187;  Street,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  5-40;  Brockman,  Ped. 
Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  255-273 ;  Swift,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  65-91 ; 
Sudborough,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  327-333;  Hall,  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.,  V^ol.  Ill,  pp.  59-70;  Kline,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  239-266. 

On  moral  and  religious  training,  see  Adler,  Moral  Instruction  of  Children; 
Forbush,  The  Boy  Problem;  Koons,  The  Child's  Religious  Life;  Hall, 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  59-70;  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  72-89, 
Vol.  VIII,  pp.  439-469;  Luckey,  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  127-136;  De 
Garmo,  N.  E.  A.,  1894,  pp.  165-173;  Dinsmore,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  X, 
pp.  74-80 ;  Spencer,  Education,  chap,  iii ;  White,  School  Management, 
chapter  on  "  Punishments  " ;  WoKe,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIH,  pp.  431- 
435 ;  Hinsdale,  Studies  in  Education,  chap.  ii. 

See  also  Morrison,  Juvenile  Offenders;  Royce,  "  The  Social  Basis  of  Con- 
science," N.  E.  A.,  1898,  pp.  196-204. 


224 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 


Bailey 

Bolton 

Breckenridge 

Cabot 

Coe 

Dawson  (i) 

Dix 

Drummond 

Gesell 


Later  References 

Books 

Hall  (i  &  3) 

Schoff 

Holt,  E.  B. 

Sharp 

King  (4) 

Shroeder 

Kirkpatrick  (i,  3,  &  4) 

Slattery 

Koons 

St.  John 

McKeever 

Sutherland 

Mumford 

Swift  (2) 

Richardson  and  Ormand 

Tanner 

Articles 


Brown,  Daisy  D.    Young  People's  Ideas  of  the  Value  of  Bible  Study. 

Fed.  Sem.,  1910,  Vol.  17,  pp.  370-386. 
Hail,  G.  S.    Relation  of  the  Church  to  Education.    Fed.  Sem.,  1908,  Vol. 

IS,  pp.  186-196. 
Kline,  L.  W.    A  Study  in  Juvenile  Ethics.    Fed.  Sem.,  1903,  Vol.  10, 

pp.  239-266. 
Marriman,  J.  J.    The  Children  and  Religion.     Fed.  Sem.,  1913,  Vol.  20, 

pp.  229-235. 
Myers,  Geo.  E.    Moral  Training  in  the  School.    Fed.  Sem.,  1906,  Vol.  13, 

pp.  409-460. 
St.  John,  Edward  F.     A  Genetic  Study  of  Veracity.    Fed.  Sem.,  1908, 

Vol.  15,  pp.  246-270. 
Ueda,  T.    The  Psychology  of  Justice.    Fed.  Sem.,  191 2,  Vol.    19,  pp. 

297-349- 


CHAPTER  XIV 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  —  VARIOUS  RESULTANT 
INSTINCTS  AND   FEELINGS 

THE  COLLECTING   INSTINCT 

This  instinct  is  clearly  manifested  in  both  animals  and  men. 
When  food  and  materials  for  nests  and  homes  are  collected  and 
used  or  stored  for  future  use,  the  act  is  of  advantage  to  the  in- 
dividual, and  often  to  the  species,  as  a  means  of  preserving  the 
young.  When,  however,  objects  of  all  kinds  are  collected  and 
hidden  or  stored  and  played  with,  as  is  the  case  with  many  kinds 
of  animals,  there  appears  to  be  nothing  of  immediate  value 
gained  by  the  act.  It  seems  as  if  the  usefulness  of  certain  acts 
of  collecting  has  led  to  an  unspecialized  tendency  to  collect 
objects  of  all  kinds. 

In  human  beings  the  instinct  is  very  strong,  and  as  a  result, 
not  only  have  we  museums  of  all  kinds,  but  nearly  every  in- 
dividual has  at  least  one  collection  of  some  sort. 

This  instinct  unites  with  other  instincts  in  a  way  which  makes 
it  impossible  to  determine  its  actual  strength.  It  is  closely 
related  to  the  instinct  of  ownership  and  to  that  of  exercising 
personal  power.  The  amassing  of  wealth,  which  is  an  indirect 
way  of  collecting  food  and  shelter  for  self  and  descendants,  is 
probably  often  due  as  much  to  the  blind  impulse  to  busy  one's 
self  in  collecting,  as  to  the  desire  for  money  and  what  it  will  buy. 
The  instinct  is  often  associated  with  the  play  instinct,  since  the 
objects  collected  are  frequently  an  important  source  of  amuse- 
ment.    Curiosity  not  infrequently  contributes  to  the  impulse, 

Q  225 


226  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

as  does  also  the  tendency  to  construct.  Competition  with  others 
greatly  increases  the  activity.  The  aesthetic  tendencies  are  also 
often  gratified  in  the  objects  collected  and  their  arrangement. 

In  children  the  instinct  is  manifested  to  some  extent  in  the 
second  year,  especially  in  connection  with  play,  sticks,  stones, 
etc.,  being  collected  and  kept  as  playthings.  It  continues  all 
through  Ufe,  and  varies  not  so  much  in  intensity  at  different  ages 
as  in  the  objects  with  which  it  is  concerned  and  the  conscious 
motives  with  which  it  is  associated.  In  children,  especially 
when  there  is  no  conscious  motive  for  the  act,  the  impulse  is 
extremely  variable.  Objects  of  a  certain  kind  may  be  collected 
and  guarded  with  the  greatest  eagerness,  as  if  life  depended  upon 
their  possession ;  then  in  a  few  days,  or  perhaps  a  few  hours,  they 
may  be  abandoned,  thrown  away,  or  destroyed.  The  sight  of 
some  one  else  appropriating  objects,  or  anything  which  suggests 
the  idea  of  securing  possession  of  objects,  is  sufficient  to  arouse 
the  collecting  impulse,  while  the  awakening  of  another  interest 
changes  the  form  of  the  impulse  or  causes  its  disappearance  for 
the  time  being ;  yet  entirely  useless  collections  of  glass,  stones, 
etc.,  are  sometimes  preserved  for  years. 

When  the  instinct  is  associated  with  some  other  instinct, 
such  as  the  individuaUstic,  the  competitive,  the  imitative,  the 
aesthetic,  or  that  of  curiosity,  the  impulse  manifested  in  a  certain 
line  in  childhood  may  continue  for  months  or  years,  or  even  all 
through  Ufe.  Thus  a  passion  for  collecting  may  develop  into 
love  of  money  or  even  miserliness,  or  into  love  of  winning  in 
any  kind  of  contest  and  the  collecting  of  trophies,  or  into  the 
pursuit  of  an  artistic  or  a  scientific  career,  with  the  collection  of 
evidences  of  success. 

The  elements  which  make  collections,  or  objects  in  a  collection, 
desirable  are,  according  to  the  reminiscences  of  Barnes's  pupils, 
variety,  quantity,  rarity,  beauty,  and  personal  association  or 
ownership.    The  reasons  given  for  making  collections  are  emu- 


VARIOUS  RESULTANT  INSTINCTS  AND  FEELINGS    227 

lation,  imitation,  pleasure  of  ownership,  and  of  classifying  or 
arranging. 

The  instinct  has  already  been  utilized  to  some  extent  in  school, 
but  there  are  undoubtedly  much  more  extensive  and  fitting 
uses  yet  to  be  made  of  it.  The  educational  value  is  not  so  much 
in  what  is  collected  as  in  the  physical,  mental,  and  volitional 
activity  called  forth  directly  or  indirectly  while  collecting.  In 
general,  children  desire  many  things,  while  older  persons  desire 
the  rare  ones  which  few  other  people  can  possess. 

THE  CONSTRUCTIVE   INSTINCT 

The  general  tendency  to  construct  things  is  largely  the  out- 
growth of  that  form  of  the  racial  instinct  which  causes  suit- 
able places  to  be  prepared  for  the  shelter  and  protection  of  the 
young.  Some  constructions,  however,  are  means  of  promoting 
individual  ends  as  well,  such  as  obtaining  food  or  shelter  for  self, 
e.g.,  webs  by  spiders,  holes  by  ground  hogs.  In  animals  the 
tendency  does  not  seem  to  be  generalized,  but  is  manifested  only 
in  constructions  which  are  characteristic  of  and  useful  to  the 
species.  In  man,  however,  there  seems  to  be  an  impulse  to  con- 
struct, independently  of  any  end  to  be  gained. 

From  the  time  the  child  begins  to  pile  up  sand  or  blocks, 
through  the  ages  when  boys  construct  tools  and  dig  caves,  and 
men  design  temples,  bridges,  business  blocks,  and  balloons,  the 
constructive  instinct  is  prominent.  There  is  a  peculiar  pleasure 
accompanying  these  acts  of  construction,  perhaps  because  one 
feels  and  perceives  in  concrete  form  the  evidence  of  his  power 
to  do,  to  modify  and  change. 

The  destructive  tendency  is  probably  only  a  modified  form  of 
the  constructive,  for  it  gives  the  same  evidence  of  power  to 
change.  It  is  often  more  attractive  to  children  because  destruc- 
tive changes  can  be  produced  so  much  more  quickly  and  easily 
than  constructive  ones.    The  destruction  or  displacement  of 


228  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

something  is  also  often  merely  a  preliminary  to  the  construction 
of  something  else  from  the  parts  or  fragments  that  are  being  made. 
Children  frequently  break  or  take  apart  complex  toys  and  make 
some  crude  thing  in  which  they  take  great  pleasure. 

The  constructive  instinct  naturally  associates  itself  with  the 
adaptive  instincts  of  imitation,  play,  and  curiosity,  with  the 
aesthetic  and  expressive  instincts,  and  sometimes  with  various 
other  instincts  and  motives. 

Imitation  and  suggestion  are  the  natural  stimuli  to  this  im- 
pulse. Like  other  forms  of  play,  it  needs  to  be  spontaneous  and 
free.  Definite  directions  as  to  what  shall  be  constructed,  and 
how  it  shall  be  done,  often  effectively  inhibit  the  constructive 
impulse. 

The  order  of  development  of  the  impulse  is  from  the  more  con- 
crete and  tangible  to  the  more  immaterial  and  symbolic.  Making 
things,  therefore,  naturally  precedes  making  pictures  of  them  or 
compositions  about  them.  In  general,  the  manual  element 
is  naturally  most  prominent  in  early  constructions,  and  the 
artistic  and  literary  in  later.  At  present,  children  are  often 
guided  and  drilled  in  artistic  and  literary  creation  before  they 
care  much  about  that  phase  of  construction,  and  are  not  given 
suflScient  opportunity  for  manual  work  till  many  of  them  have 
partially  or  wholly  lost  their  interest  in  making  things. 

THE  ESTHETIC  INSTINCT 

The  biological  value  of  this  instinct  is  not  easily  discerned. 
It  is  most  satisfactorily  explained  as  a  resultant  tendency  rather 
than  as  a  primarily  useful  instinct.  The  idea  that  insects  select 
flowers  which  are  beautiful  for  fertilization,  and  hence  such  flowers 
survive,  and  that  animals  select  the  mates  most  beautiful  in 
appearance  and  action,  and  thus  promote  the  development  of 
the  beautiful,  leads  to  the  rather  absurd  conclusion  that  all  the 
beauty  of  organic  life  is  the  result  of  the  good  taste  of  the  lower 


VARIOUS  RESULTANT  INSTINCTS  AND  FEELINGS    229 

animals.  The  more  reasonable  view  is,  that  the  qualities  of 
plants  or  animals  which  attract  insects  and  mates,  or  favor 
avoidance  of  enemies,  are  preserved  by  natural  selection.  In 
other  words,  the  useful  survives.  It  becomes  agreeable  according 
to  the  general  law  of  accommodation  by  which  every  organ  of 
every  animal  comes  to  respond  in  the  most  favorable  way  to 
every  impression  that  is  often  repeated.  Leaves  and  grass  are 
green  because  the  elements  favoring  plant  growth  give  them  that 
color,  and  green  is  pleasant  and  restful  to  the  eye  because  in  the 
course  of  ages  the  eye  has  become  accommodated  to  green.  For 
a  similar  reason  we  find  grace  and  beauty  in  nearly  all  forms 
of  life  and  action. 

Although  the  aesthetic  reaction  is  in  a  large  measure  playful 
(the  product  of  the  excess  of  life  above  what  is  necessary  to  its 
maintenance),  yet  it  is  always  closely  associated  with  the  useful 
from  which  it  has  evolved.  Anything  suggesting  want  of  equi- 
librium or  strength  fails  to  appear  beautiful  because  such  ob- 
jects have  not  been  useful,  and  hence  not  numerous  and  per- 
manent enough  to  result  in  favorable  accommodation  to  them. 
Symmetry  and  a  position  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  gravity 
are  therefore  universal  elements  of  beauty.  For  similar  reasons 
harmony  of  parts  and  unity  of  the  whole  is  a  universal  requisite 
of  beautiful  objects.  The  elements  of  beauty  which  are  asso- 
ciated with  universal  laws  of  existence  and  permanency  are 
therefore  responded  to  in  approximately  the  same  way  by  all 
nations  of  people. 

Those  associated  with  local  characteristics  and  customs,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  responded  to  dijfferently  by  each  nation, 
tribe,  and  community.  For  example,  the  peculiar  blues  of 
Scandinavian  art  are  not  so  much  enjoyed  by  people  of  other 
countries  where  they  are  rarely  found  in  nature.  Our  music, 
also,  is  as  painful  to  the  Chinese  as  is  theirs  to  us. 

Recent  experiences  make  wonderful  changes  in  the  aesthetic 


23©  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

reaction.  Even  in  the  same  community  the  beautiful  sleeves  or 
hats  of  last  year  are  "horrid"  a  year  or  two  later.  What  is 
common  for  temporary  reasons,  as  well  as  what  is  common  be- 
cause constantly  useful,  comes  to  be  regarded  as  beautiful; 
hence,  beauty  is  in  part  a  matter  of  style  or  custom. 

Since  the  experience  of  each  individual  differs  from  that  of 
every  other,  each  person  has  also,  in  a  measure,  his  own  standards 
of  beauty.  Purely  personal  associations  aroused  by  an  object 
sometimes  have  more  influence  upon  one's  judgment  than  the 
more  universal  and  fundamental  elements  of  beauty. 

Standards  of  beauty  are,  therefore,  partially  determined  by 
universal  laws  of  use  and  beauty,  partially  by  local  surroundings, 
customs,  and  style,  and  partially  by  individual  peculiarities  of 
temperament,  experience,  and  training. 

The  aesthetic  instinct  is  closely  connected  with  several  other 
instincts.  Whenever  certain  forms  of  the  play  impulse  are 
clearly  marked,  either  in  animals  or  children,  there  is  some 
ground  for  believing  that  there  is  a  crude  form  of  aesthetic  appre- 
ciation. This  is  especially  true  of  all  playful  exhibitions  by  ani- 
mals, of  form,  color,  movement,  and  voice,  by  which  they  and 
their  companions,  especially  mates,  are  pleased.  Such  acts  of 
showing  off  and  of  adornment  are  common  among  all  savage 
tribes  and  are  very  characteristic  of  children.  Their  real  pur- 
pose is,  however,  to  attract  attention,  and  it  is  not  certain  that 
any  animal  below  man  has  aesthetic  feelings. 

The  aesthetic  impulse  is  thus  a  form  of  the  play  instinct  and 
closely  associated  with  the  racial  and  social  instincts.  It  is  not 
less  closely  associated  with  the  rhythmic,  dramatic,  constructive, 
and  expressive  instincts.  The  joy  of  doing  always  culminates 
in  the  pleasure  of  contemplating  the  beauty  of  the  product  or 
performance.  The  impulse  to  express  mental  states  also  at- 
tains its  highest  form  when  the  expression  itself  is  beautiful. 

The  development  of  the  aesthetic  impulse  is  greatly  influenced 


VARIOUS  RESULTANT  INSTINCTS  AND   FEELINGS     231 

by  the  instincts  with  which  it  is  associated.  It  cannot,  therefore, 
reach  its  deepest  and  broadest  development  until  after  puberty. 
In  early  childhood  the  aesthetic  sense  is  largely  sensory;  color, 
sound,  and  rhythm  being  the  most  effective  stimuli.  Beauty  of 
form,  harmony,  and  unity  become  more  important  as  the  mind 
develops  and  standards  are  formed  by  habit  and  training. 
Colored  pictures  and  those  with  subjects  interesting  to  young 
children  therefore  appeal  more  to  them  than  the  most  artistic 
black-and-white  pictures. 

Vocal  skill  and  auditory  appreciation  develop  much  earlier 
than  manual  skill  and  visual  appreciation  (except  in  the  case  of 
colors).  Children  enjoy  rhythm,  melody,  and  the  act  of  singing 
much  sooner  than  they  appreciate  symmetry  of  form,  unity  of 
design,  and  the  power  to  make  beautiful  forms.  Lancaster's  in- 
vestigations show  that,  on  the  average,  great  musicians  achieved 
their  first  success  at  nine  or  ten  years  of  age ;  while  artists  have 
not  obtained  corresponding  success  until  about  eighteen  years 
of  age. 

That  the  aesthetic  instinct  should  be  developed  is  admitted 
by  all,  but  there  is  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  method. 
Should  only  the  highest  art  be  shown  children,  even  though 
they  do  not  appreciate  it,  or  should  they  be  allowed  to  revel  in 
bright  colors  and  sharp  contrasts  until  their  aesthetic  appreciation 
becomes  less  crude?  It  is  of  no  use  to  place  before  them  high 
art  which  excites  no  interest  or  feeling,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
continued  association  with  crude  and  imperfect  art  develops 
wrong  standards.  Nature  gives  the  best  models  because  uni- 
versal laws  of  beauty  are  shown  in  every  flower,  leaf,  and  twig. 
Other  models  for  children  should  be  chosen,  first,  because  they 
exemplify  fundamental  laws  of  beauty;  and,  second,  because 
they  have  qualities  which  will  attract  the  attention  and  arouse 
the  interest  of  children.  Great  works  of  art  which  appeal  to 
children  because  of  their  color,  or  the  subject  represented,  will 


232  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

mold  their  taste ;  while  those  that  fail  to  attract  their  attention 
will  have  little  or  no  influence.  Care  should,  therefore,  be  taken 
that  pictures  in  the  schoolroom  are  both  artistic  and  interesting. 

THE  MIGRATORY  INSTINCT 

In  its  primitive  form  this  instinct  is  probably  nothing  more 
than  a  manifestation  of  the  general  tendency  to  act  so  as  to  in- 
crease or  get  more  of  a  favorable  stimulus  already  received.  At 
a  certain  season  of  the  year,  salmon,  for  example,  experience 
bodily  changes  preparatory  to  the  production  of  young,  which 
cause  them  to  move  so  as  to  get  into  an  environment  more  and 
more  favorable  to  their  present  bodily  state  as  regards  tempera- 
ture, chemical  condition,  etc.  The  result  is  that  after  many 
days  they  find  themselves  in  the  fresh  water  where  they  were 
hatched  years  before. 

This  is  the  fundamental  form  of  the  instinct  which  makes 
every  animal,  including  man,  experience  an  impulse  to  migrate 
when,  through  changes  in  himself  or  his  surroimdings,  he  is  out 
of  harmony  with  his  environment.  The  impulse  is  felt  in  the 
spring  by  nearly  every  one  in  a  greater  or  less  degree.  Some 
persons,  such  as  tramps,  pioneers,  and  travelers,  never  become 
so  firmly  settled  and  accommodated  to  any  environment  that 
they  do  not  yield  to  the  migratory  impulse. 

Children  of  two  or  three  years  nearly  always  have  a  period  of 
running  away.  Later,  the  impulse  to  play  truant  from  school 
or  to  leave  home  often  comes,  and  is  frequently  acted  upon  with- 
out conscious  purpose  or  reason.  The  impulse  is  especially 
strong  during  the  period  of  adolescent  changes,  and  if  there  is 
not  actual  running  away,  there  is  at  least  a  strong  desire  to  travel. 
Special  causes  of  discontent  often  bring  on  or  increase  such 
impulses. 


VARIOUS  RESULTANT  INSTINCTS  AND  FEELINGS    233 
THE  RHYTHMIC   INSTINCT 

The  universal  tendency  to  rhythm  in  action  may  be  considered 
under  the  head  of  instinctive  tendencies,  though  it  is  really  an 
organic  and  automatic  tendency  even  more  fundamental  than 
an  instinct. 

Rhythm  is  a  marked  feature  in  physical  phenomena  as  well  as 
in  plant  and  animal  life.  In  man,  all  bodily  processes  are  rhyth- 
mic, and  all  repeated  movement  tends  to  take  a  rhythmic  form. 
It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  consciousness  is  rhythmic. 
There  are  rhythms  of  attention,  activity  is  followed  by  rest,  and 
one  emotional  extreme  is  succeeded  by  its  opposite.  Conscious- 
ness even  makes  rhythmic  what  is  objectively  without  rhythm, 
as  when  continuous  and  uniform  beats  of  a  metronome  are 
heard  as  rhythmic  beats. 

The  more  instinctive  form  of  the  rhythmic  tendency  is  shown 
in  the  impulse  to  produce  rhythmic  movements  and  sounds,  and 
to  appreciate  or  respond  in  a  particular  way  when  such  rhythms 
are  produced  by  others.  Both  of  these  tendencies  are  manifested 
in  the  first  few  months  of  infancy.  The  tendency  remains  much 
the  same  all  through  life  except  that  the  rhythms  become  more 
complex.  The  rhythm  of  conversation,  music,  and  poetry  is 
often  appreciated  long  before  the  other  elements  of  which  they 
are  composed.  Mother  Goose  rhymes  and  some  of  Tennyson's 
finest  poems  are  enjoyed  by  children  for  exactly  the  same  reason, 
i.e.,  their  rhythmic  character.  Many  games  also  owe  their 
charm  to  the  opportunity  they  afford  for  rhythmic  sounds  and 
movements. 

RELATION  OF  INSTINCTIVE  ACTIONS  TO  FEELINGS 

In  general,  an  instinct,  as  Professor  James  says,  is  a  tendency 
to  act ;  and  an  emotion,  a  tendency  to  feel.  Since  most  instinc- 
tive actions  are  at  least  occasionally  accompanied  by  feeling, 


234  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

there  is  an  emotion  for  every  instinct.  Every  emotion  has  also 
its  appropriate  bodily  expression  which  varies  somewhat  from  the 
corresponding  instinctive  action. 

The  tense  muscles,  labored  breathing,  pale  or  flushed  face, 
quickened  heartbeat,  and  irregular  movements  of  anger  are  only 
partially  reproduced  in  the  purely  instinctive  movements  of 
fighting.  The  act  of  fighting  is  exhilarating  and  pleasurable, 
while  anger,  especially  when  it  takes  the  form  of  irritation  and 
hate,  is  rather  painful  and  depressing.  Anger  appears  whenever 
an  action  of  any  kind  is  interfered  with,  as  is  clearly  shown  in 
young  babies.  The  resulting  irregular,  varied,  and  vigorous 
movements  often  overcome  the  interference,  and  fighting  move- 
ments are  probably  the  result  of  the  selection  of  the  most  favor- 
able of  these.  When  the  stimulus  to  action  continues  without 
the  obstruction  being  removed,  irritation  or  sullenness  and 
smoldering  hate  of  the  cause  of  the  interference  are  likely  to 
result. 

Jealousy  and  envy  are  produced  by  the  sight  of  another 
enjoying  the  pleasure  given  by  a  loved  being  or  a  desired  object. 
These  emotions  seem  to  be  experienced  by  nearly  all  species  of 
animals  and  are  usually  especially  prominent  in  children.  The 
tendency  to  them  remains  strong  all  through  life,  but  is  sup- 
pressed and  covered  up  by  training  and  social  convention. 

Humorous  emotions  are,  in  nature  and  cause,  the  opposite  of 
those  of  anger.  Instead  of  interference  with  activity,  when  the 
sense  of  humor  is  aroused,  there  is  a  sudden  opening  of  a  channel 
of  free  activity.  Any  sudden  stimulus  giving  rise  to  playful 
movements  is  likely  to  arouse  the  emotion  in  young  children 
and  perhaps  in  animals.  The  delight  of  children  in  "peek-a-boo," 
and  in  all  play  in  which  there  is  a  sudden  transformation  which 
may  be  accompanied  by  laughter  and  sudden  movements  of 
head  or  hands,  nmning,  etc.,  indicates  the  early  rise  of  this 
emotion.    When  a  child  of  less  than  two  suddenly  turns  his  head 


VARIOUS  RESULTANT  INSTINCTS  AND  FEELINGS    235 

away  from  the  one  he  has  offered  to  kiss,  and  runs  off  laughing, 
the  presence  of  humor  is  unmistakable.  In  general,  humor  is 
the  result  of  a  more  or  less  serious  form  of  physical  or  mental 
reaction  being  suddenly  converted  into  a  playful  form. 
Naturally,  therefore,  humor  and  pathos  are  often  associated, 
and  "there  is  only  a  step  from  laughter  to  tears."  Humor  is  a 
permanent  emotion,  as  play  is  a  permanent  instinct,  but  it  is 
stronger  in  childhood  than  in  old  age.  The  stimuli  to  humor, 
like  the  forms  of  playful  activity,  vary  greatly  with  age.  The 
child's  humor  is  often  nonsense  to  the  adult,  and  the  adult's, 
incomprehensible  to  the  child ;  but  whenever  they  can  play  to- 
gether they  meet  on  a  common  basis. 

Humor  should  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  same  class  as 
the  aesthetic  instinct,  and  the  same  attention  given  to  cultivating 
and  refining  it.  A  keen  sense  of  humor  is  one  of  the  essentials 
of  a  good  teacher  and  she  does  well  to  encourage  pupils  to  see 
the  humorous  in  life  and  in  literature. 

The  tendency  to  tease  is  an  instinctive  form  of  humor  which 
needs  more  careful  study  by  educators.  In  general  it  leads  to  a 
lower  form  of  humor  and  is  often  the  source  of  many  quarrels 
which  the  parent  or  teacher  may  have  to  settle.  On  the  other 
hand,  teasing  has  a  value  in  that  the  fear  of  being  laughed  at 
is  one  of  the  strongest  social  and  even  moral  forces  in  every  social 
circle. 

The  emotions  of  awe  and  refuerence  are  accompaniments  of  re- 
actions which  involve  little  or  no  movement  because  there  is  no 
movement  suited  to  the  stimulus  which  arouses  them.  The 
object  arousing  the  emotion  is  impressive  but  not  exciting,  and 
there  is  no  fitting  motor  response  except  the  more  or  less  com- 
plete inhibition  of  movement.  It  is  related  to  that  form  of 
the  fear  instinct  in  which  safety  is  gained  by  keeping  still ;  but 
the  object  is  less  definitely  fearful,  and  is  attractive  rather  than 
repulsive. 


236  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

RELATION   OF  FUNDAMENTAL   STIMULI   TO   FEELINGS 

There  are  many  kinds  of  stimuli  which  have  affected  the 
development  of  intelligent  action  in  animals  and  men  from  the 
earliest  ages.  Heat  and  cold,  fire  and  frost,  light  and  darkness, 
the  clouds  and  heavenly  bodies,  water  and  earth,  trees  and 
flowers,  birds  and  animals,  heights  and  depths,  open  and  closed 
spaces,  feathers  and  fur,  eyes  and  teeth,  etc.,  are  some  of  the 
more  or  less  constant  stimuli  which  mold  mind  in  the  race  and 
the  individual.  A  large  amount  of  data  regarding  the  feelings 
and  ideas  excited  by  these  phenomena  of  nature  has  been  col- 
lected from  folklore,  reminiscences  of  adults,  and  observation 
of  children,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Hall.  This  material  is 
very  interesting  and  suggestive,  but  exceedingly  diverse.  This 
is  probably  to  be  expected,  since  the  favorable  or  unfavorable 
character  of  these  phenomena  varies  with  the  species  concerned 
and  with  various  conditions,  surroimdings,  and  experiences  of 
species  and  individuals.  Thus  water  or  fire  may  be  fascinating 
to  one,  terrifying  to  another,  and  tranquilizing  to  a  third,  or  each 
of  these  to  the  same  individual,  when  appearing  in  special  forms. 

It  is  evident  also  from  descriptions,  and  from  well-known 
laws  of  association,  that  many  of  the  emotions  excited  by  these 
stimuli  are  the  result  of  early  experiences  of  the  individual  with 
such  stimuli,  or  of  the  influence  of  the  words  and  actions  of  adults 
in  connection  with  them.  It  is  utterly  impossible  from  the 
studies  thus  far  made  to  say  how  far  these  mental  states  or 
"psychoses"  are  due  to  hereditary  racial  experiences  and  how 
far  to  individual  experiences  in  connection  with  social  heredity. 

The  nature  and  development  of  the  emotional  life  of  man 
can  never  be  understood  till  we  have  learned  more  regarding 
the  universal  effects  of  instinctive  actions,  and  of  the  more 
constant  and  universal  stimuli,  upon  mental  activity  and  feeling. 
Many  years  must  elapse  before  such  knowledge  can  be  obtained. 


VARIOUS  RESULTANT  INSTINCTS  AND  FEELINGS    237 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Report  full  details  of  one  or  more  collections  which  you  have  made. 
Give  some  specific  illustrations  of  the  way  in  which  the  collecting  instinct 
may  be  utilized  in  education.  Are  ready-made  collections  of  as  much  vedue 
as  pupil-made  collections?  Is  it  of  any  advantage  to  children  to  make 
scrapbooks? 

2.  A  boy  of  four  worked  a  considerable  part  of  two  days  constructing  a 
tool  box  out  of  laths,  and  a  very  restless  little  girl  worked  steadily  for  two 
hours  sewing  on  a  dress  for  her  doll.  What  does  this  indicate?  Give  a 
number  of  illustrations  of  ways  in  which  the  constructive  instinct  may  be 
utUized  in  the  different  grades  in  the  school. 

3.  Report  instances  where  children  have  been  greatly  affected  by  what 
they  regarded  as  very  beautiful  or  ugly.  Mention  various  ways  in  which 
the  aesthetic  impulse  may  be  cultivated  directly  and  indirectly  in  school. 

4.  Give  illustrations  from  your  own  experience  or  observation  of  the 
strength  of  the  migratory  instinct.  May  mental  changes  be  made  to  take  the 
place  of  physical  ones,  e.g.,  imaginary  journeys  for  real  ones?    Illustrate. 

5.  Give  illustrations  showing  the  strength  of  the  rhythmic  tendency,  and 
show  how  it  may  be  utilized  in  school. 

6.  Give  illustrations  of  the  instinctive  basis  of  various  emotions. 

7.  Reminiscences  and  observations  regarding  the  influence  of  light  and 
darkness,  and  perhaps  of  other  stimuli,  should  be  reported. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  children's  collections,  read  Barnes,  Studies,  Vol.  I,  pp.  144-146 ;  C.  Frear 

Burk,  Fed.  Sent.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  179-207 ;  Groszmann,  Jr.  Ch.  and  Ad., 

April,  i90i,pp.  377-385- 
On  the  constructive  instinct,  see  Small,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  152- 

153 ;  and  on  its  use  in  education,  see  Dewey,  The  School  and  Society. 
On  aesthetic  feeUngs,  see  Ribot,  pp.  328-367  ;  Scott,  "  Sex  and  Art,"  Am. 

Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  153-226;  Harris,  N.  E.  A.,  1897,  pp.  330- 

338;    Chamberlain,  pp.  173-189;   Sully,   chap,  ix;   Brown,  "Art  in 

Education,"  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  112-121. 
On  migratory  impulses,  see  Kline,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  381-420 ;  Am.  Jr. 

Psych.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  1-81 ;  Dinsmore,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  183-186 ; 

Brooks,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LII,  pp.  784-798. 
On  rhythm,  see  Bolton,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  145-238 ;  Sears,  Ped. 

Sem.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  3-34 ;  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  28-^1. 


238  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

On  various  impvilses  and  feelings,  see  Burk,  "  Teasing  and  Bullying,"  Ped. 
Sem.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  336-371;  Bolton,  "Hydro-Psychoses,"  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  169-227 ;  Hall,  "  Tickling  and  Laughing,"  Am. 
Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  1-41 ;  Hall  and  Smith,  "  Reactions  to  Light  and 
Darkness,"  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  21-83  J  HaU  and  Brown, 
"  Fire,  Heat,  Frost,  and  Cold,"  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  27-85 ;  HaU 
and  WalUn,  "  How  Children  and  Youth  Think  about  Clouds,"  Ped. 
Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  460-506 ;  Ellis,  "  Fetichism  in  Children,"  Ped. 
Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  205-220;  France,  "  Gambling  Impulse,"  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  364-407 ;  Chamberlain,  chap,  vii ;  Small, 
"Methods  of  Manifesting  the  Instinct  for  Certainty,"  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V, 
PP-  313-380;  Phillips,  "The  Teaching  Instinct,"  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VI, 
pp.  188-245  j  Arnett,  "  Origin  and  Development  of  Home  and  Love  of 
Home,"  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  324-365  ;  Lindley  and  Partridge, "  Some 
Mental  Automatisms,"  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  41-60. 

Later  References 

Books 

Bolton  McNamara  Sully 

GeseU  Oeblen  Tanner 

Kent  Sandiford  Thomdike  (8) 

Articles 

Hall,  G.  S.  The  Psychology  of  Music  and  the  Light  It  Throws  upon 
Musical  Education.    Ped.  Sem.,  1908,  Vol.  15,  pp.  358-364. 

Reaney,  M.  Jane.  The  Psychology  of  the  Boy  Scout  Movement.  Ped. 
Sem.,  1914,  Vol.  21,  pp.  406-411. 

Wheeler,  W.  M.  Vestigial  Instincts  in  Insects  and  Other  Animals.  Am. 
Jr.  of  Psych.,  1908,  Vol.  19,  pp.  1-13. 


CHAPTER  XV 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  —  THE  EXPRESSIVE 
INSTINCT 

ORIGIN,   NATURE,   AND   FORMS 

This  instinct  belongs  with  the  resultant  and  miscellaneous 
group  because  it  owes  its  origin  to  various  other  instincts.  Ex- 
pression is  a  means  of  frightening  enemies  and  communicating 
with  friends  regarding  food  and  danger;  consequently  it  has 
been  developed  in  the  attainment  of  individual,  racial,  and 
social  ends. 

In  the  lowest  animals,  expression,  so  far  as  there  is  any,  is 
accomplished  by  means  of  feelers  or  antennae  (notably  in  the 
case  of  ants),  but  in  higher  animals  the  chief  means  are  sounds. 
Most  mammals  and  birds  have  from  two  or  three  to  a  dozen 
different  calls  which  are  appropriately  responded  to  by  others 
of  their  species.  In  man,  the  expressive  instinct  reaches  its 
highest  development  because  of  his  social  nature  and  the  per- 
fectness  of  his  vocal  organs,  and  also  because  of  the  complexity 
of  the  mental  states  to  be  expressed.  Instinctive  emotional 
expression  and  expressive  gestures  are  so  effective  that  savages, 
without  a  word  of  artificial  language  in  common,  can  communi- 
cate more  accurately  than  any  of  the  lower  animals. 

Man  is  not  limited,  however,  to  the  language  of  natural  signs. 
Every  race  has  formed  an  artificial  language  of  arbitrary  symbols. 
Animals,  on  the  other  hand,  have  no  artificial  speech,  and  only 
a  few  of  them  can  use  such  language  even  in  an  imitative  way. 
In  man,  the  need  for  communication  is  so  great,  and  the  instinct 

239 


240  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

of  expression  so  strong,  that  children  who  had  never  heard  any 
language  would  probably  form  a  crude  one  suited  to  their  needs. 
The  fact  that  children  who  hear  but  little  spoken  language, 
sometimes,  as  Horatio  Hale  has  shown,  form  a  language  of  their 
own,  is  evidence  of  this.  Again,  children  of  nearly  the  same 
age,  who  play  together  a  great  deal,  sometimes  form  a  language 
of  their  own  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  are  surrounded  by  other 
persons  who  are  talking  a  good  deal  of  the  time.  Many  children 
also  invent  new  words,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  they  con- 
tinually hear  a  fully  developed  language. 

Since  any  means  by  which  the  mental  state  of  one  being  is 
expressed  to  another  is  a  language  in  the  broad  meaning  of  the 
term,  words  may  be  tactual,  motor,  or  visual,  as  well  as  auditory ; 
and  ideas  may  be  expressed  in  the  permanent  form  of  some 
constructed  object  or  representation,  as  well  as  temporarily  by 
sound,  touch,  or  gesture.  Constructive  activities  of  all  kinds 
are  important  forms  of  expression ;  but  we  shall  take  space  to 
discuss  in  detail  only  the  forms  in  most  general  use ;  namely, 
(I)  Auditory  Symbols,  (II)  Visual  Symbols,  and  (III)  Drawings. 

I.  Auditory  Expression 

FACTORS  CONCERNED 

The  primitive  form  of  the  expressive  instinct  is  shown  by  both 
animals  and  children  in  suggestive  sounds  and  movements  which 
are  responded  to  by  companions  in  appropriate  ways.  These 
are  more  numerous  and  well  developed  in  animals  living  in  groups 
than  in  others,  although  some  are  useful  to  all  those  animals 
which  care  for  their  young  and  for  those  that  seek  mates.  The 
crow,  which  is  much  of  the  time  with  others,  probably  has  as 
many  as  a  dozen  expressive  calls.  Monkeys,  which  always  live 
in  groups,  have,  according  to  Garner,  many  more.  Children 
add  considerably  to  their  native  endowments  in  this  respect 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  241 

before  they  learn  an  artificial  language,  and  make  a  good  deal 
of  use  of  this  natural  language  in  learning  to  understand  and  use 
an  artificial  one. 

Besides  their  special  endowments  in  this  direction  children 
have  a  more  general  instinctive  tendency  to  expression  which  is 
based  perhaps  in  part  upon  a  tendency  to  respond  to  all  stimuli 
by  movement  of  some  kind  and  by  a  tendency  for  mental  excite- 
ment of  all  kinds  to  find  some  motor  outlet.  This  results  in 
similar  responses  to  similar  objects  and  states  and  these  responses 
become  expressive.  The  sound  "bow-wow"  comes  to  mean  any 
dog,  just  as  certain  movements  indicate  anger  or  fear.  The 
usefulness  of  the  expressive  instinct  is  not  in  the  movements 
themselves,  but  in  the  responses  they  cause  companions  to 
make. 

The  first  factor  in  modifying  and  developing  the  expressive 
instincts  is  play.  Before  learning  to  talk,  and  sometimes  after- 
ward, children  frequently  use  their  vocal  organs  as  playthings, 
and  thus  develop  their  vocal  centers  in  preparation  for  the  pro- 
duction of  any  sound  they  may  subsequently  have  occasion  to 
use.  Later,  children  often  combine  and  substitute  words  in 
various  ways,  as  a  matter  of  amusement. 

The  second  most  important  factor  in  producing  a  vocal 
language  is  the  imitative  instinct.  This  leads  to  sounds  and 
gestures  being  responded  to  by  similar  sounds  and  gestures. 
These  naturally  arouse  corresponding  ideas  in  other  persons, 
and  are  therefore  often  repeated  and  learned.  They  are  then 
used  for  other  similar  stimuli,  and  thus  they  become  words  and 
a  means  of  classification  of  objects.  The  use  of  "tree"  for  cer- 
tain kinds  of  objects,  "flower"  for  others,  and  "animal"  for 
others  causes  the  common  characteristics  of  each  class  to  be 
noted  more  carefully,  and  the  general  notion  or  concept  of  it  is 
thus  perfected.  Other  symbols  are  used  to  indicate  sensations 
and  quahties  as  well  as  objects  and  acts.     Often  they  are  also 


242  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

applied  to  analogous  and  associated  objects.  Not  only  knives 
are  "sharp,"  but  pains,  vinegar,  and  wits.  "Kitty"  meant 
to  M.  not  only  the  animal,  but  anything  that  was  soft  to  the 
touch,  and  finally  anything  that  was  pleasing. 

In  the  case  of  a  child  surrounded  by  people  speaking  a  vocal 
language,  imitation  is  the  most  important  factor  in  his  language 
development.  The  child  has  continually  before  him  examples 
of  persons  responding  to  stimuli  by  words  only,  and  the  imitative 
instinct  leads  him  to  respond  in  the  same  way.  He  is  much 
more  likely  to  imitate  a  response  than  an  original  stimulus, 
though  sometimes  the  child  who  has  not  been  taught  the  word 
"dog,"  for  example,  will  say  "bow-wow"  when  he  perceives 
or  pictures  the  animal ;  but  with  equal  opportunity  to  hear  a 
dog  bark  and  hear  the  word  "dog,"  he  is  likely  to  adopt  the 
sound  used  by  others.  For  this  reason  each  child,  no  matter 
what  his  nationality,  learns  the  language  he  hears  spoken.  Deaf 
children  are  usually  slow  in  learning  visual  language  as  well  as 
auditory ;  but  not  so  much  because  hearing  is  necessary  to  lan- 
guage learning  as  because  they  are  deprived  for  many  years  of 
the  chance  to  imitate  any  artificial  language. 

Necessity,  which  really  means  action  for  one's  good,  or  conform- 
ity to  the  fundamental  individualistic  instinct,  is  another  impor- 
tant factor  in  the  individual  language  development,  as  it  was 
perhaps  the  chief  one  in  the  development  of  language  by  the  race. 
The  child  who  learns  to  understand  words  of  warning  or  approval 
succeeds  in  avoiding  various  painful  stimuli  and  in  securing 
pleasant  ones.  Similar  results  come  from  ability  to  indicate 
nunger,  and  objects  of  fear  or  desire.  If  a  child  is  helped  to 
what  he  wants  in  response  to  the  language  of  natural  signs,  he  is 
often  slow  in  using  conventional  language ;  hence,  it  is  sometimes 
well  for  parents  to  refuse  to  understand  the  wants  of  children 
old  enough  to  talk  until  they  try  to  express  them  in  words. 

Another  more  obscure  but  very  important  factor  in  acquiring 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  243 

language  is  the  instinctive  social  tendency  to  wish  for  sympathy 
and  approval.  This  is  also  really  a  phase  of  the  expressive 
instinct  itself.  Children  seem  especially  desirous  that  others 
shall  hear,  see,  and  feel  what  they  do,  as  well  as  that  they  them- 
selves shall  have  the  same  experiences  that  others  are  getting. 
Language  is  one  means  of  sharing  experiences ;  hence,  it  is  used 
a  great  deal  for  that  purpose.  Children  often  repeat  over  and 
over  a  statement  to  make  sure  it  is  comprehended,  and  cease 
only  when  they  receive  assurance  by  word  or  act  that  they  have 
been  understood.  Language  is  the  chief  medium  by  which  the 
wider  social  life  is  brought  to  the  individual  soul,  and  by  which 
he  infuses  his  own  mental  states  into  the  thoughts  and  feelings 
of  the  group  to  which  he  belongs.  All  impulses  to  communicate, 
whether  to  engage  in  the  most  trivial  gossip  or  to  give  expression 
to^the  profoundest  feelings  and  thoughts,  are  the  result  of  the 
social  tendency  to  share  one's  experiences  with  others  of  his  kind. 

STAGES  OF   LEAK.NING  ORAL  LANGUAGE 

Instinctive  stage 

The  instinctive  language  which  man  has  in  common  with  the 
lower  animals  is  that  of  emotional  expression.  He  begins  life 
with  a  cry  and  often  ends  it  with  a  moan.  This  language  of 
natural  signs  is  not  learned  by  the  individual,  but  is  instinctively 
understood  and  used  by  all  races. 

At  first  the  child  has  no  cry  except  for  discomfort,  and  little 
or  no  variation  in  its  cry  to  express  different  kinds.  Soon,  how- 
ever, the  cry  of  anger  or  the  wail  of  disappointment  is  differen- 
tiated from  the  cry  of  physical  pain.  At  about  the  same  time, 
or  a  little  later,  other  cries,  screams,  gurglings,  and  cooings,  sug- 
gestive of  energy  or  pleasurable  contentment,  are  made.  Dif- 
ferentiation in  vocal  expression  probably  proceeds  more  rapidly 
than  differentiation  of  the  different  forms  of  emotion,  since 


244  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

emotions  are  probably,  in  part  at  least,  the  result  of  what  is 
called  their  expression. 

Children  only  a  few  months  old  are  sensitive  to  emotional 
expression  of  others,  and  may  be  soothed,  irritated,  or  depressed 
by  appropriate  tones  of  voice.  Vocal  laughter,  however,  is 
sometimes  rather  late  in  appearing  in  children  and  correspond- 
ingly late  in  being  understood.  One  little  girl  was  well  along 
in  her  second  year  before  she  laughed  aloud,  and  until  she  herself 
laughed  was  disturbed  and  even  frightened  by  the  sudden  laugh- 
ter of  others. 

Besides  the  purely  instinctive  language  of  emotional  expression, 
there  is  usually  developed  in  the  second  year  a  more  intellectual 
language,  which  prepares  the  way  for  purely  symbolic  language. 
The  child  learns  to  vary  the  tone  of  his  grunts  and  squeals  so  as  to 
express  fear,  surprise,  question,  desire,  satisfaction,  and  assent, 
and  he  associates  gesture  with  these  variations  in  tone.  Soon, 
therefore,  he  can  express,  to  one  quick  to  interpret,  nearly  all 
his  feelings,  ideas,  and  wishes.  All  through  life,  tone  of  voice, 
emphasis,  inflection,  and  gesture  continue  to  be  effective  aids  in 
expression,  and  important  means  of  interpretation,  especially 
of  whatever  concerns  the  emotions. 

Since  the  child's  life  is  more  emotional  than  intellectual,  this 
form  of  language  is  peculiarly  appropriate  in  communicating 
with  him.  After  he  begins  learning  artificial  language,  the 
instinctive  language  of  tone  and  gesture  remains  an  important 
means  of  communication,  and  an  effective  aid  in  interpreting 
what  is  heard.  A  child  may  be  commended  in  tones  that  will 
make  him  cry,  or  condemned  in  accents  that  will  cause  him  to 
smile  with  pleasure. 

Playful  and  imitative  stage 

This  stage  of  language  learning  does  not  take  the  place  of  the 
preceding  stage,  but  is  added  to  it.     Beginning  in  the  second 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  245 

quarter  of  the  first  year,  it  is  usually  prominent  for  from  one  to 
several  years.  In  the  second  and  third  quarters  of  the  first 
year,  the  vocal  organs  of  a  child  are  his  most  important  play- 
things. During  this  period  of  babbling  a  child  may  make 
nearly  every  sound  in  the  language. 

In  the  last  quarter  of  his  first  year,  babbling  often  gives  place 
to  imitation,  and  instead  of  repeating  chance  sounds  over  and 
over,  the  child  reproduces  nearly  every  sound  that  he  hears. 
Sometimes  this  is  done  almost  automatically  and  with  phono- 
graphic exactness.  In  other  instances  the  imitations  seem  to 
be  more  voluntary  from  the  first,  since  the  child  keeps  trying 
to  utter  a  word,  with  varying  success,  until  he  gets  tired  or  suc- 
ceeds in  speaking  it  satisfactorily  to  himself. 

Sometimes  this  imitative  stage  is  almost,  if  not  entirely  omitted, 
as  was  the  case  with  M.  The  "da  da,"  or  purely  playful  use  of 
language,  was  very  inconspicuous  in  C.  One  or  more  phases  of 
language  learning  are,  therefore,  sometimes  omitted  entirely  or 
subordinated  to  others. 

Quite  frequently  the  child  imitates  tone,  inflection,  and  rhythm 
before  attempting  to  articulate  separate  words.  Sometimes  so 
perfectly  is  this  done  that  a  person  in  another  room  is  led  to 
beUeve  that  a  conversation  is  being  carried  on.  Evidently  in 
such  cases,  tone  and  rhythm  are  most  impressive  to  the  child, 
and  the  motor  adjustments  for  their  imitation  most  easily  made. 

Word-learning  stage 

As  soon  as  a  child  begins  to  utter  sounds  for  some  other  pur- 
pose than  the  mere  making  of  them,  the  stage  of  word  learning 
proper  is  introduced.  Frequently  the  playful  and  imitative  ut- 
terance of  words  is  intermingled  with  their  use  for  a  purpose, 
in  a  way  that  is  rather  puzzling  to  adults.  This  word-learning 
stage  may  begin  in  the  first  year,  but  is  not  usually  very 
marked  till  the  last  half  of  the  second  year. 


246  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Usually,  children  understand  words  before  they  speak  them ; 
but  in  cases  where  the  imitative  stage  is  marked,  many  words 
are  uttered  before  their  meaning  is  known.  The  meaning  of 
words  applied  to  objects  and  acts  is  learned  by  hearing  them  in 
connection  with  the  perception  of  object  or  act ;  yet  even  these 
words  are  understood  not  so  much  by  their  sound  as  by  means 
of  the  circumstances  and  the  gesture  or  glance  of  the  eye  which 
accompany  their  utterance.  It  is  therefore  difficult,  before  a 
child  begins  to  talk,  to  tell  what  words  he  really  knows.  He  is 
often  greatly  puzzled  by  a  familiar  word  uttered  without  the 
usual  suggestive  conditions,  or,  if  they  are  present,  some  other 
word  may  have  the  same  effect  as  the  right  one.  A  child  who 
had  often  been  told  to  "lie  down"  when  she  sat  up  after  being 
put  to  bed,  would  lie  down  if  the  words  "  sit  up  "  were  substituted, 
but  uttered  in  the  usual  tone  of  voice  and  with  the  usual  glance. 

The  child  is  always  liable  to  associate  a  word  with  a  different 
characteristic  from  the  one  intended.  To  one  little  girl,  "chair" 
meant  not  so  much  the  article  of  furniture  as  the  act  of  sitting, 
and  to  another,  "quack"  meant  not  only  a  duck,  but  the  water 
in  which  it  was  seen. 

Pronunciation  of  words  which  require  very  accurate  adjust- 
ment of  muscles  is  a  difficult  task  in  the  early  stages  of  word 
learning.  The  power  to  understand  words  is  usually  more 
quickly  gained  than  the  power  to  control  the  vocal  apparatus. 
Some  children  do  not  try  to  use  words  difficult  of  pronunciation 
till  long  after  the  meaning  is  perfectly  familiar  to  them.  Thus 
M.  refrained  from  saying  "grandma"  for  about  a  year  after  she 
knew  the  word.  Most  children,  however,  are  not  often  deterred 
from  trying  to  use  words  by  inability  to  pronoimce  them  cor- 
rectly. 

The  question  of  pronunciation  is  simply  one  form  of  the  general 
problem  of  how  voluntary  motions  are  acquired.  Some  sounds, 
and  especially  some  combinations  of  sounds,  are  difficult  of  utter- 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  247 

ance  for  adults  as  well  as  for  children ;  hence,  it  is  not  easy  to 
separate  the  childish  diJficulties  from  other  difficulties  of  the 
language.  A  study  of  the  first  sound  of  all  the  words  used  by 
children  will  show  that  words  beginning  with  certain  sounds, 
such  as  th  or  r,  are  not  so  well  represented  as  those  beginning 
with  other  sounds,  such  as  /  and  h.  This  may  be  interpreted  as 
showing  that  words  beginning  with  difficult  sounds  are  avoided. 
To  mean  anything,  however,  the  prominence  of  those  sounds  in 
adult  language  must  be  considered.  A  study  of  the  sounds 
mispronounced,  especially  of  those  at  the  beginning  of  words, 
and  of  sounds  substituted  for  those  presumably  more  difficult 
of  pronunciation,  therefore,  may  be  more  significant.  The 
difficulties,  however,  of  getting  accurate  records  of  children's 
pronunciations  (many  of  which  are  intermediate  between  sounds 
recognized  as  elementary  by  adults)  are  so  great  that  one  does 
not  feel  sure  of  the  data.  The  errors  and  substitutions  change 
also  with  age,  and  vary  greatly  with  individuals.  Presumably 
there  is  some  law  of  variation  with  age  corresponding  to  the 
natural  order  in  which  the  centers  controlling  the  vocal  appara- 
tus develop,  though  the  course  of  development  must  be  greatly 
modffied  by  individual  training  and  experience.  Common  ob- 
servation indicates  that  this  order  is  from  large,  comparatively 
free,  to  finer  and  more  definitely  controlled  movements  involving 
accurate  coordination  of  the  several  parts  of  the  vocal  apparatus. 

The  fact  that  sounds  are  difficult  not  merely  in  themselves, 
but  according  to  the  sounds  with  which  they  are  associated, 
makes  the  question  of  the  natural  order  of  development  an  ex- 
ceedingly complex  one. 

Habit  and  the  relation  of  one  center  to  another  also  modify 
the  natural  order,  if  there  be  one,  to  such  an  extent  that  its 
determination  is  very  difficult.  As  soon  as  a  new  word  is  learned 
there  is  a  tendency  to  assimilate  other  words  to  it;  hence,  the 
pronunciation  of  any  word  is  likely  to  be  modified  by  some  other 


248  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

word  which  has  recently  been  learned  or  often  pronounced.  Thus 
Mrs.  Moore's  boy,  who  used  " ama "  for  "grandma,"  used  *' appa " 
for  "papa,"  and  after  learning  "ba  ba"  for  "baby,"  changed 
to  "pa  ba,"  and  after  using  "be  be"  for  "baby,"  to  "pape,"  and 
then  finally  to  "papa." 

Again,  pronunciation  is  a  matter  of  auditory  perception  and 
memory  as  well  as  of  motor  development.  As  a  consequence, 
words  are  often  mispronounced  because  the  child  does  not  dis- 
criminate sounds  accurately,  and  still  more  often,  because  he 
discriminates  sounds  just  as  they  are  pronounced  by  adults, 
instead  of  as  they  should  be.  Most  adults  slur  certain  sounds, 
and  the  child  naturally  reproduces  only  the  accentuated  portion 
of  the  words  he  hears,  or  fills  out  the  word  with  sounds  already 
familiar  to  him.  For  example,  a  child  who  had  been  singing  a 
famihar  hymn  suddenly  stopped,  and  said,  "What  is  a  conse- 
crated cross-eyed  bear,  anyway?"  The  first  or  last  or  most 
impressive  syllable  only  of  a  long  word  is  often  used  because  it 
is  most  noticed  and  best  remembered. 

The  rate  at  which  children  overcome  the  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  learning  to  understand  and  pronounce  words  becomes 
more,  rather  than  less  marvelous  as  it  is  studied.  Records  of 
children's  vocabularies,  which  have  multipUed  greatly  within 
the  last  few  years,  show  that  children  of  two  or  three  years 
actually  use  more  words  than  adults  were  formerly  supposed  to 
use.  From  thirty  to  a  hundred  new  words  a  month  is  not  an 
unusual  rate  of  learning  after  the  acquisition  of  language  fairly 
begins. 

Children  rarely  learn  to  walk  and  to  talk  at  the  same  time. 
When,  as  is  usual,  walking  precedes  talking,  the  language-learn- 
ing stage  is  not  generally  marked  till  the  last  half  of  the  second 
year.  At  two  years  of  age  a  child's  vocabulary  may  not  exceed 
a  score  of  words ;  but  is  likely  to  number  from  two  to  four  hun- 
dred, and  may  reach  the  surprising  figure  of  ten  or  fifteen  hundred. 


THE   EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  249 

The  rate  of  acquiring  words  between  two  and  four  years  of  age 
varies  with  the  degree  of  interest  in  learning  as  compared  with 
interest  in  combining  words  already  known,  and  with  the  waxing 
and  waning  of  interest  in  other  forms  of  motor  activity,  such  as 
walking  or  building  with  blocks.  The  child's  vocabulary  may 
therefore  increase  very  rapidly  for  a  month  or  two ;  then  remain 
almost  the  same  for  a  time,  while  facility  in  the  use  of  the  new 
words  is  gained,  or  while  interest  is  temporarily  occupied  with 
objects  and  acts,  rather  than  their  names  and  descriptions. 

As  to  the  kind  of  words  most  learned  by  children,  close  study 
shows  that  the  supposition  that  nouns  especially  appeal  to  them 
is  wholly  wrong.  At  two  years  of  age  the  proportion  of  nouns 
in  children's  vocabularies  is  about  the  same  as  in  the  language, 
viz.,  60  per  cent;  but  the  proportion  of  verbs  is  about  20  per 
cent,  or  nearly  twice  what  it  is  in  the  language.  Adverbs  are 
also  relatively  more  numerous  than  adjectives.  These  facts 
harmonize  with  other  studies,  showing  that  children  are  more 
interested  in  actions  than  in  things.  Adjectives  and  verbs  are 
often  learned  first,  yet  nouns  seem  to  predominate  during  the 
first  months  of  speaking,  when  the  per  cent  may  be  70  or  80. 
In  reahty,  however,  the  noun  idea  is  not  so  prominent  as  this, 
for  words  that  in  adult  language  are  nouns,  are  to  the  child  verbs, 
or  else  the  distinction  is  not  yet  made.  For  instance,  M.  used 
"  bed  "  in  the  sense  of  lie  down,  just  as  we  use  "  dress  "  to  mean 
the  act  as  well  as  the  object.  Prepositions  also  are  at  first  for 
the  child  nearly  always  verbs,  "  up  "  or  "  down  "  signifying  the 
act  rather  than  the  position. 

Sentence-making  stage 

Groups  of  words,  e.g.,  "  da  'tis  "  (there  it  is),  are  sometimes 
learned  before  single  words ;  but  words  learned  separately  are 
rarely  combined  until  they  have  been  used  separately  for  some 
time.     The  stage  of  word  learning  gradually  merges  into  the 


2 so  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

stage  of  word  combining,  and  a  close  observer  will  usually 
discover  that  a  time  comes  when  a  child  is  more  concerned  with 
the  combination  of  familiar  words  than  with  the  learning  of 
new  ones.  This  stage  is  apt  to  become  prominent  in  the  third 
or  fourth  year. 

The  single  words  that  a  child  uses  are,  in  a  way,  sentences, 
especially  when  expression  is  helped  out  by  tone  inflection  and 
gesture;  e.g.,  "papa"  means  "Papa  has  come,"  "I  want  my 
papa,"  "That  is  papa,"  "Papa  will  do  it,"  "I  will  give  it  to 
papa,"  etc. 

An  exact  report  of  what  a  child  just  beginning  to  combine 
words  says,  is  surprisingly  unintelligible  to  one  knowing  nothing 
of  the  child,  or  the  circumstances  and  tone  of  voice  accompany- 
ing the  words.  Only  that  portion  of  a  thought  which  is  accen- 
tuated in  the  child's  mind  or  seems  to  need  statement  is  put 
into  words  —  all  the  rest  is  understood  from  the  circumstances 
or  expressed  in  some  other  way;  e.g.,  "Little  story"  means 
"Tell  me  a  little  story." 

Progress  in  sentence  making  is  the  result  of  three  processes : 
(i)  the  substitution  of  words  for  what  is  understood  or  indicated 
by  tone  or  gesture;  (2)  analysis  of  situations  into  separate 
elements  which  then  are  expressed  by  words ;  (3)  increase  of  men- 
tal grasp  so  that  the  relation  of  different  elements  to  each  other 
is  held  in  mind,  and  words  selected  and  arranged  to  indicate 
that  relation. 

The  shifting  of  interest  and  attention  from  the  objects  con- 
cerned in  an  act  to  the  actor  or  the  action,  evidently  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  elements  of  a  situation  and  leads  to  the  attempt  to 
name  the  various  elements  and  their  relation.  Adverbs,  adjec- 
tives, and  prepositions  are  the  result  of  attempts  to  express 
the  less  important  phases  of  thought  and  their  relations,  e.g., 
"  Get  bed  papa"  becomes  later  "I  want  to  get  in  bed  with  papa." 

Soon  more  complex  relations  are  expressed  by  the  introduction 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  251 

of  conjunctions  and  relatives  so  as  to  connect  clauses  into  com- 
plex sentences,  e.g.,  "I  will  go  and  see  if  papa  is  there." 

The  arrangement  of  words  is  determined  largely  by  imitation, 
but  is  also  influenced  by  shifting  of  interest  and  attention.  Thus 
a  little  girl  said,  ''Eat,  papa  apple,"  then  a  moment  later  when 
apple  (as  contrasted  with  pear)  was  most  prominent  in  her  mind, 
she  said,  ''Apple,  papa  eat,"  while  at  another  time,  when  the 
person  was  most  thought  of,  she  said,  "Papa,  eat  apple." 

Records  of  all  sentences  used  by  a  child  between  two  and  four, 
during  an  hour  or  more,  taken  at  regular  intervals,  show  a  marked 
increase  in  completeness,  length,  and  complexity  of  sentences, 
as  is  shown  by  the  following  extract  from  such  a  record  and  the 
table  on  page  252. 

Twenty-eighth  month.  "More  pencil"  (I  want  the  other 
pencil);  "Little  story"  (Tell  me  a  little  story);  "That  all?" 
(Is  that  all?);  "New  cuff?"  (Is  that  a  new  cuff?) ;  "Cracker 
want"  (I  want  a  cracker). 

Thirty-fourth  month.  " Know  where  is  my  papa ?" ;  "I  want 
kiss  baby";  "No  want  to  be  dressed";  "I  don't  want  to  be 
dressed"  ;   "Got  some  little  birds  on"  (said  of  a  screen). 

Fortieth  month.  "Baby  want  to  get  down  run  round  a  little 
while";  "I  run  back  and  forth";  "No,  I  don't  want  to  run 
out  in  the  hall" ;  "Baby  do  like  to  have  me  nm  in  here,  baby 
do" ;   "He  want  me  to  run  here." 

Forty-sixth  month.  "This  is  a  nice  little  kitty";  "Don't 
you  want  to  go  down  there  and  pat  him?";  "Why  don't  you, 
he  is  nice  and  soft?";  "He  is  afraid  sometimes";  "I  tried  to 
catch  him  and  give  him  to  you  to  pat  him." 

Contrary  to  all  rules  of  grammar,  most  of  the  child's  first 
sentences  have  no  subject,  many  are  without  an  assertive  verb, 
while  only  a  few  are  without  an  object.  The  length  of  sentence 
is  doubled  in  a  few  months,  and  complex  and  compound  sentences 
appear  and  increase  in  number,  showing  the  rapid  growth  in 
mental  grasp  or  span  of  consciousness. 


252  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

TABLE  OF  SENTENCES  AND  WORDS  USED   BY   "M." 


Date 

Age 

Sentences 

Compxjund  Sentences     .     .     . 
Complex  Sentences    .... 
Compound  and  Complex  Sen- 
tences        

Clauses 

Compound  Subjects  .... 
Compwund  Predicates    .     .     . 
Compound  Objects  or  Modifiers 
Prepositional  Phrases     .     .     . 
Infinitive  Phrases      .... 

Assertive  Sentences  .... 
Question  Sentences  .... 
Command  or  Wish    .... 

Incomplete  Sentences     .     .     . 

Subject  Omitted 

Assertive  Verb  Omitted  .  . 
Object  of  Verb  or  Preposition 

Words 

Nouns 

Pronouns      

Verbs 

Adverbs 

Adjectives 

Prepositions 

Conjunctions 

Interjections 

Different  Words 

Nouns 

Pronouns      

Verbs 

Adverbs 

Adjectives 

Prepositions 

Conjunctions 

Interjections 


Nov.  II, 

1898 

28  months 

No. 

% 

100 

100 

3 

3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

lOI 

lOI 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2(8)» 

2 

2 

2 

42 

42 

ao 

2b 

37 

37 

96 

96 

81 

81 

67 

67 

4 

4 

23s 

100 

91 

38.7 

12 

S-i 

53 

22.5 

20 

8.5 

46 

19.S 

9 

3.8 

0 

0 

4 

1.2 

107 

574 

SO 

46.7 

4 

3.7 

24 

22.4 

7 

6.5 

17 

IS.8 

t 

1.8 

I 

0.9 

2 

0 

May  13,  1899 
34  months 


No. 


100 

S 


117 
o 


15 
17 

45 

14 

37 

62 

38 

44 

5 

405 

73 

"3 

137 

32 

24 

23 

I 

o 

130 
44 
IS 
41 
10 
12 


(II) 
(2) 


% 


100 

S 


117 

o 

I 

I 
^5 
17 

45 

14 

37 

62 

38 

44 

S 

100 

18 

27.8 

33-6 
7.8 
5-9 
5.6 
0.2 
o 

32.1 

33.8 

ii-S 

33-5 

7-7 

9.2 

6.1 

o 

o 


May  13, 1900 
46  months 


No. 


100 
29 
14 

6 

156 

o 

3 

7 

29 

26 

SO 
28 


23 
9 

14 
o 

700 

108 

186 

217 

94 

49 

27 

19 

5 

180 

43 
18 

65 

23 

16 

6 

7 
2 


^  Additional  phrases  partly  expressed. 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  253 

In  changing  words  to  indicate  person  and  number,  and  in 
arranging  words  in  the  right  order,  children  often  make  mistakes, 
but  the  irregularity  of  the  language  in  forming  plural  or  tense 
forms  is  usually  the  cause.  Without  conscious  generalization, 
children  are  marvelously  quick  in  applying  a  common  form  of 
ending  or  law  of  language  to  new  words,  e.g.,  "tooken,"  *'eated," 
"mans."  A  similar  influence  often  leads  children  to  make  new 
forms  of  words  according  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  language. 
Thus  M.,  who  had  been  rolling  a  hoop,  said  she  had  been  "hoop- 
ing," and  at  another  time  spoke  of  her  shoe  as  "worning"  out. 

Recent  detailed  studies  of  the  vocabularies  and  sentences  of 
children  from  two  to  five  years  of  age,  of  the  written  work  of 
pupils  in  the  grades,  and  of  the  understanding  vocabularies  of 
older  pupils  indicate  that  the  number  of  words  used  may  increase 
at  the  rate  of  four  hundred  or  more  a  year  and  that  the  number 
understood  more  or  less  perfectly  is  likely  to  be  three  to  five 
times  as  great.  Such  figures  and  those  indicating  total  vocabu- 
lary vary  greatly  according  to  the  forms  of  words  counted  as 
distinct,  the  size  of  the  dictionary  vocabulary  taken  as  a  basis 
for  computing  percentages,  and  also  as  to  whether  written  or 
oral  words  are  counted  and  whether  the  averages  are  for  grades 
or  for  individuals.  The  studies  also  show  that  the  language  of 
individual  children  is  greatly  modified  by  environment  and  in- 
terests and  at  the  same  time  is  indicative  of  such  influences  and 
of  the  intellectual  development  in  general  and  in  special  lines. 

II.  Visual  Language 

The  factors  leading  to  the  understanding  and  use  of  visual 
language  are  only  partially  the  same  as  for  oral  language. 
Visual  language,  as  we  have  it,  is  at  best  purely  conventional, 
and  hence  it  is  not  directly  based  on  or  associated  with  a  natural 
and  instinctive  form  of  expression,  as  is  oral  language.  The 
imitative  tendency  is  appealed  to  less  frequently  and  less  im- 


254  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

pressively  by  visual  than  by  oral  symbols  Necessity,  or  the 
gaining  of  desirable  ends,  is  a  much  less  important  factor  in 
learning  to  read  and  write  than  in  learning  to  talk,  because 
the  child  already  has  an  adequate  and  easier  means  of  com- 
munication in  his  oral  language  than  he  had  in  the  language 
of  natural  signs  when  learning  the  oral.  It  is  also  much 
more  difficult  to  make  the  understanding  and  use  of  visual 
language  as  necessary  to  the  gratification  of  the  daily  desires 
of  the  child  as  in  the  case  of  oral  language.  Questions,  answers, 
commands  and  remarks  might,  however,  be  expressed  in  visual 
language  a  great  deal  more  than  they  are  in  the  primary  schools. 

In  the  early  stage  of  learning  to  read  and  write,  the  only 
instincts  which  can  be  appealed  to  with  as  great  effectiveness 
as  in  oral  language  are  the  play  instinct  and  the  social  desire 
for  approbation.  Hence,  although  much  pedagogical  skill  is 
now  expended  in  arranging  words  so  as  to  show  their  likeness 
and  difference,  and  lead  to  their  analysis  and  classification,  the 
progress  in  learning  visual  language  is,  for  some  time,  slower 
than  in  the  early  stage  of  oral  language  learning  without  any 
formal  teaching  whatever.  Children  would  probably  progress 
much  faster  if  oral  language  were  associated  with  visual,  in  much 
the  same  way  that  oral  language  is  at  first  supplemented  by  the 
instinctive  language  of  natural  signs.  For  example,  a  teacher 
may  write  only  the  most  important  words  of  a  sentence  and  speak 
the  others,  or  in  the  earlier  attempts  at  writing,  children  may 
be  allowed  to  speak  some  of  the  difficult  words  in  every  sen- 
tence which  they  write. 

After  children  have  gained  the  power  to  read  with  some  facility, 
the  instinct  of  curiosity  and  the  desire  to  know  about  the  world 
and  its  people,  and  to  share  the  thoughts  of  mankind  as  expressed 
in  books,  are  the  important  factors  in  language  learning.  A 
sort  of  reading  craze  often  sets  in  at  this  time,  which  results  in 
an  enormous  addition  to  the  youth's  vocabulary  (probably  a 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  255 

thousand  words  a  year  would  be  a  low  estimate,  since,  according 
to  the  author's  investigations,  high  school  graduates  usually 
know  the  meaning  of  twenty  or  thirty  thousand  words).  Read- 
ing also  exercises  a  great  influence  on  the  language  habits.  Some- 
times even  oral  language  is  thus  rendered  "bookish." 

The  impulse  to  express  to  individuals  or  to  humanity  his  own 
ideas  and  feelings  in  poem,  story,  article,  or  book,  often  be- 
comes strong  in  the  early  teens.  If  teachers  could  skillfully 
use  this  impulse  instead  of  ignoring  or  checking  it,  enormous 
advances  would  be  made  in  teaching  language  as  a  means  of 
expression. 

Interest  in  language  as  such,  aside  from  ideas  to  be  expressed, 
is  often  first  manifested  in  a  marked  degree  (not  counting  the 
early  period  of  imitative  play)  in  a  playful  form  of  learning  to 
use  and  construct  secret  languages.  This  tendency  reaches  its 
climax  at  about  thirteen.  Probably,  therefore,  this  is  the  age 
for  learning  foreign  languages.  Interest  in  the  study  of  language 
as  a  form  of  art  or  as  a  science,  such  as  is  required  in  literary 
appreciation  and  the  study  of  grammar,  cannot  be  greatly  de- 
veloped until  the  language  is  learned,  and  as  a  rule  only  after 
some  of  the  higher  forms  of  aesthetic  appreciation  and  of  abstract 
thought  have  been  reached.  Up  to  this  time,  children  are  in- 
terested in  language  only  as  a  means  of  expressing  thought,  and 
the  correctness  of  their  language  is  almost  wholly  the  result  of 
imitation  and  habit. 

After  language  is  learned,  rather  than  before,  is  the  time  for 
studying  its  structure  and  appreciating  its  beauty.  Grammar 
from  the  pedagogical  point  of  view  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a 
means  of  speaking  correctly,  but  as  a  scientific  analysis  and  clas- 
sification of  means  of  expression  which  are  already  familiar. 
In  this,  as  in  other  cases,  the  natural  order  for  the  race  and  for 
the  individual  is  to  learn  how  to  do  a  thing,  then  to  admire  grace 
in  doing  it,  or  enjoy  the  scientific  study  of  how  it  is  done. 


2S6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Methods  of  learning  to  read 

Methods  of  teaching  reading  differ  chiefly  in  the  prominence 
they  give  to  the  visual  symbols  and  their  associated  sounds  as 
compared  with  the  meaning  of  these  symbols,  and  in  kind  of 
previous  knowledge  which  they  attempt  to  utilize.  The  phonic 
method  emphasizes  word  calling  and  strives  to  build  up  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  sounds  corresponding  to  letters  and  letter  combina- 
tions, as  a  means  of  facilitating  the  learning  of  words  and  of  in- 
creasing the  ability  to  pronounce  new  words.  The  thought 
method  seeks  to  arouse  appropriate  thoughts  in  connection  with 
the  observation  of  visual  words  so  as  to  make  the  child  think  of 
the  corresponding  oral  words  which  are  already  familiar  to  him. 

It  is  worth  while  to  compare  these  two  methods  of  learning 
visual  language  with  the  method  by  which  the  child  learns  oral 
language,  especially  when  we  reflect  upon  the  wonderful  command 
of  such  language  which  the  child  gains  in  a  few  years.  Even 
the  most  superficial  observer  of  children  who  are  learning  to 
talk,  knows  that  they  do  not  learn  the  elementary  sounds  of  the 
language,  then  use  that  knowledge  in  learning  words.  They 
learn  to  understand  words  and  phrases  as  a  whole,  and  later 
notice  their  elements  and  the  way  in  which  they  are  combined 
into  sentences.  There  is  no  evidence  that  anything  like  the 
phonic  method  is  used  in  learning  to  get  thought  through  the 
medium  of  oral  symbols.  In  the  matter  of  expressing  thought 
by  means  of  vocal  movements  there  is  also  little  or  no  corre- 
spondence with  the  phonic  method.  There  is  some  preliminary 
play  with  the  vocal  organs  which  is  doubtless  helpful  in  the 
later  learning  to  utter  words,  but  when  a  child  begins  to  use 
words  as  a  means  of  expressing  thought  there  is  nothing  to  in- 
dicate that  he  is  consciously  making  use  of  his  knowledge  of 
elementary  sounds  in  pronouncing  those  words. 

In  learning  oral  language  the  child  is  assisted  in  getting  the 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  257 

meaning  of  words  by  the  situation  presented,  the  significance  of 
tone  and  gesture,  and  by  his  knowledge  of  some  of  the  word 
symbols  used.  By  these  means  he  gets  the  thought  and  learns 
to  distinguish  and  utter  the  corresponding  oral  symbols.  He 
occasionally  asks  for  words  to  be  repeated  or  practices  pro- 
nouncing a  new  word,  but  for  the  most  part  learns  the  word  and 
its  meaning  by  hearing  it  used  at  various  times.  In  the  thought 
method  of  teaching  reading,  similar  aids  are  used.  Thoughts 
are  aroused  in  the  child's  mind,  and  the  visual  words  expressing 
them  are  shown.  This  makes  him  think  of  some  of  the  oral 
words  expressing  that  thought,  and  the  teacher  supplies  the  others, 
pointing  out  the  correspondence.  A  closely  related  thought 
expressed  by  many  of  the  same  words  is  then  presented.  Knowl- 
edge of  the  things  being  expressed  and  of  the  oral  words  for 
expression  helps  in  learning  the  visual  words.  After  a  few  words 
have  been  learned  they  assist  in  arousing  the  ideas  corresponding 
to  each  sentence,  and  the  teacher  needs  less  and  less  to  suggest 
the  ideas  by  other  means.  If  a  variety  of  interesting  reading 
is  provided,  the  child  soon  becomes  able  to  read  readily  selec- 
tions in  which  the  oral  forms  of  the  words  are  already  famiUar 
to  him. 

He  can,  of  course,  do  little  in  the  way  of  naming  words  which 
are  not  already  known  to  him  orally.  It  is  in  doing  this  that  the 
phonic  method  is  supposed  to  be  especially  helpful.  It  is  worthy 
of  note,  however,  that  during  the  first  year  or  two  the  words 
learned  are  with  few  exceptions  already  familiar  to  him  in  their 
oral  forms. 

In  the  second  or  third  year  of  reading,  the  child  is  likely  to 
meet  many  words  that  are  not  known  to  him  orally.  This  is 
also  the  time  when  he  usually  begins  to  write  and  needs  to  know 
how  to  spell  words.  In  learning  to  read  he  has  incidentally 
learned  something  of  the  correspondence  between  visual  letters 
and  combinations  of  letters  with  sounds.  A  httle  phonic  drill 
s 


2S8  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

will  increase  this  knowledge,  and,  if  given  in  connection  with 
spelling,  will  be  a  valuable  aid  in  that  subject.  Such  knowledge 
will  also  help  in  the  use  of  a  dictionary.  It  is,  therefore,  at  this 
time  rather  than  earlier,  and  for  these  purposes  rather  than  in 
learning  to  read,  that  phonic  drill  is  of  most  value.  These  re- 
marks apply  especially  to  children  who  speak  well  the  language 
they  are  learning  to  read.  Those  who  do  not,  will  need  more 
vocal  drill,  perhaps  in  the  form  of  phonics.  The  thought  method 
is  also  one  more  easily  used  with  one  or  a  few  children  than  with 
a  large  class,  and  is  more  successful  when  applied  by  an  intelli- 
gent teacher  than  by  one  who  is  dependent  on  rules. 

The  question  of  the  method  of  first  learning  to  read  is  of  less 
importance,  however,  than  the  question  of  how  long  the  child's 
attention  shall  be  directed  toward  the  forms  and  names  of  words 
instead  of  toward  the  thoughts  expressed  by  the  printed  page. 
A  rapid  and  effective  reader  sees  only  the  essentials  of  words 
and  groups  of  words  and  does  little  or  nothing  in  the  way  of 
vocalizing  the  sounds,  either  actually  or  by  image.  To  keep 
the  child's  attention  chiefly  upon  naming  words  in  his  reading 
lessons  rather  than  upon  the  thoughts  being  expressed,  during 
several  school  years,  is  likely  to  produce  an  expert  reader  of  words 
with  habits  which  will  render  it  unlikely,  if  not  impossible,  that 
he  will  ever  become  a  rapid  reader  in  the  sense  of  getting  thought 
from  the  printed  page.  Since  most  people  read  silently  from 
ten  to  a  hundred  times  as  much  as  they  read  aloud,  efficiency 
demands  that  reading  should  be  taught  in  such  a  way  as  to  help 
children  to  become  efficient  in  getting  thought  rather  than  facile 
in  naming  words.  The  results  of  reading  tests  indicate  that 
children  taught  by  the  phonic  method  are  much  slower  and  less 
efficient  in  silent  reading  than  those  taught  by  the  thought 
method. 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  259 

Learning  to  write 

Learning  to  write  is  analogous  to  learning  to  control  the  vocal 
organs  in  the  acquisition  of  speech.  The  more  or  less  playful 
marking  with  a  pencil  and  playing  with  letters  by  children  from 
three  to  six  corresponds  to  the  playful  exercise  of  the  vocal  organs 
by  children  of  less  than  a  year.  This  may  be  followed  by  more 
conscious  attempts  at  imitation  of  letters  corresponding  to  the 
earlier  imitations  of  sounds,  including  words.  It  is  only  when 
the  child  tries  to  make  a  certain  combination  of  letters  in  order 
to  express  thought,  that  his  attempt  at  written  language  cor- 
responds to  his  earher  attempts  at  expressing  ideas  by  vocal 
movements. 

Since  a  child  learns  to  speak  without  special  drill  in  the  use 
of  the  vocal  organs,  it  would  seem  that  he  might  learn  to  write 
without  special  and  separate  training  of  the  hand  in  making  the 
proper  movements.  Possibly  the  apparatus  for  uttering  sounds 
is  more  easily  trained  and  brought  imder  control  than  the  ap- 
paratus of  the  hand  used  in  writing,  but  the  chief  reason  why 
writing  is  not  learned  in  the  same  way  as  is  talking  is  because 
the  need  for  writing  is  not  felt  so  keenly  and  frequently,  and  the 
stimulus  of  others  who  are  expressing  themselves  in  writing 
is  much  less  effective  than  in  the  case  of  oral  language. 

If  a  child  lived  among  people  who  communicated  wholly  by 
writing  large  words  on  blackboards  and  he  could  understand 
them  and  make  his  own  wants  known  only  by  watching  and 
imitating  them,  he  would  doubtless  learn  to  write  as  he  now 
learns  to  talk,  without  any  specific  teaching.  The  learning 
would  perhaps  be  slower  because  there  are  few  natural  signs 
to  help  in  interpreting  what  is  being  written,  while  in  learning 
to  talk,  the  natural  signs  of  expression  of  face,  tone  of  voice,  and 
gesture  are  of  great  assistance.  Even  with  these  advantages 
it  has  been  found  possible  in  the  case  of  individual  children  to 


26o  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

learn  to  write  with  little  or  no  special  training  in  the  movements 
of  writing.  However,  although  children  should  undoubtedly 
gain  more  of  their  knowledge  of  writing  while  trying  to  say 
things  with  a  pencil  or  pen,  yet  the  conditions  of  school  life  make 
it  advantageous  to  give  special  training  in  the  movements  of 
writing.  In  this,  as  in  most  cases,  teachers  are  usually  inclined 
to  dwell  too  much  upon  partial  and  intermediate  phases  of  the 
complex  process,  and  too  little  inclined  to  have  it  performed  as 
a  whole  in  reaching  some  desirable  end. 

It  does  not  take  children  long  to  learn  the  approximate  forms 
of  letters,  and  the  stage  of  drawing  letters  while  looking  at  models 
should  be  shortened  rather  than  prolonged.  Very  soon  the 
practice  should  be  carried  on  from  memory  with  occasional 
comparisons  with  good  models  for  correction.  Separate  practice 
in  holding  pen  and  in  free  movements  should  be  used,  but  with 
attention  directed  rather  to  the  resulting  ovals  and  curves  than 
to  the  fingers  and  muscles.  These  practice  movements  should 
alternate  with  making  letters,  and  later,  with  writing  to  express 
thought,  so  that  the  freedom  of  movement  will  carry  over.  Much 
variation  as  to  size  and  form  of  letters  should  be  permitted  at 
first,  in  order  that  the  child  may  not  be  induced  to  slowly  draw 
letters  with  cramped  movements  instead  of  freely  writing  them. 

Any  attempt  at  immediate  accuracy  and  uniformity  in  writing 
is  directly  contrary  to  the  general  principles  of  learning  a  com- 
plex act,  in  accordance  with  which  there  is  always  a  gradual 
approach  to  definiteness  of  movement.  As  long  as  the  child's 
writing  is  varying  and  in  general  toward  better  forms,  the  progress 
should  be  regarded  as  normal  and  satisfactory.  Watch  should 
be  kept,  however,  to  see  that  some  undesirable  mode  of  move- 
ment or  form  of  letter  is  not  repeated  until  it  becomes  a  habit 
and  progress  is  arrested.  When  such  a  tendency  appears,  it  is 
not  usually  best  to  call  attention  to  the  defect,  but  to  do 
something  which  will  lead  to  a  variation,  perhaps  in  excess  of 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  261 

what  is  desired,  then  to  emphasize  the  desirable  forms  and 
movements  as  they  appear. 

Modern  methods  of  teaching  penmanship  are  great  improve- 
ments over  those  formerly  used,  but  there  is  still  too  little  recog- 
nition of  the  fact  that  it  may  be  advantageous  for  children  to 
use  various  kinds  of  movements  in  learning  to  write,  before  they 
settle  upon  the  exact  movements  found  to  be  best  for  adults 
who  are  to  become  expert  penmen.  For  instance,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  early  insistence  upon  the  exclusive  use  of  the  muscular 
movement  by  young  children  is  wise,  taking  into  account  general 
principles  of  learning  and  the  probable  order  in  which  different 
muscle  groups  naturally  mature.  There  is  also  still  too  much 
separate  practice  upon  penmanship  and  too  little  practice  in 
using  the  knowledge  and  skill  acquired,  while  accomphshing 
some  end  by  means  of  writing.  This  results  often  in  two  styles 
of  writing,  one  used  when  practicing  penmanship  and  the  other 
in  practical  work. 

Learning  to  spell 

One  of  the  most  common  illusions  of  teachers  is  that  children 
are  learning  to  spell  only  when  they  are  studying  a  spelling  lesson, 
when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  are  learning  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  how  to  spell  whenever  they  see  or  hear  or  attempt  to 
write  words.  The  chief  advantage  of  spelling  lessons  is  not 
that  the  spelling  of  specific  words  is  learned,  but  that  they  compel 
attention  to  the  elements  composing  words  and  cause  the  child 
to  notice  those  elements  more,  when  he  is  seeing  and  hearing 
words.  Since,  however,  the  natural  tendency  in  language 
learning  is  to  notice  more  and  more  only  what  is  essential  to 
thought,  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  special  practice  in  spelling, 
unless  children  si)end  much  more  time  than  they  do  now  in 
expressing  themselves  in  writing. 

Phonics  are  a  help  in  learning  to  spell,  chiefly  in  that  they 
make  one  familiar  with  the  usual  sounds  of  letters  and  com- 


26*  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

binations,  so  that  the  child  can  guess  the  approximate  spelling 
of  a  large  proportion  of  words  whether  they  are  familiar  or  not. 
Phonics  should  be  taught  with  this  end  in  view. 

In  learning  to  spell  specific  words  attention  should  be  directed 
particularly  to  the  letters  which  the  child  cannot  guess,  from  his 
knowledge  of  phonics,  are  the  ones  to  be  used.  Specific  mem- 
orizing of  parts  may  be  carried  on  by  repeating  impressions  or 
images,  either  of  the  sound  of  the  letters  in  the  word  or  their  vis- 
ual appearance,  or  by  both.  Again,  the  process  may  be  carried 
on  by  the  movements  of  vocalizing  the  sounds  or  by  writing 
the  words,  or  both  at  once.  Some  children  receive  most  help 
by  emphasis  upon  one  kind  of  stimulus  or  image,  and  others 
upon  another.  The  chief  thing  to  be  done  is  to  attend,  in  per- 
ceiving or  imaging,  to  the  specific  elements  which  need  to  be 
memorized,  instead  of  mechanically  producing  all  the  ele- 
ments. 

Another  point  brought  out  clearly  by  investigations  is  that 
children  in  the  higher  grades  usually  misspell  many  of  the  com- 
mon words  which  they  learned  to  recognize  in  the  lower  grades. 
This  is  probably  because  these  words  were  observed  only  enough 
to  distinguish  them  from  other  words  and  to  get  the  thought 
suggested ;  hence  it  was  natural  that  the  habit  of  not  noticing 
the  exact  composition  of  familiar  words  was  developed.  The 
remedy  for  this  would  seem  to  be  earlier  attention  to  the  writing 
of  these  little  common  words  so  as  to  compel  the  child  not 
only  to  recognize  the  words,  but  to  notice  the  exact  letters  com- 
posing them.  If  this  has  been  omitted,  the  only  remedy  is 
special  study  and  practice  in  writing  such  words  by  the  chil- 
dren who  misspell  them. 

III.  Drawing 

Drawing  may  be  considered  as  an  art  based  on  the  constructive 
and  aesthetic  instincts,  but  in  its  earlier  stages,  at  any  rate,  it 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  263 

is  to  a  considerable  extent  really  a  language  based  on  the  expres- 
sive instinct. 

There  is  no  purely  instinctive  stage  of  drawing  as  there  is  of 
oral  language,  but  there  is  a  very  well  marked  playful  and  imi- 
tative stage.  Children  delight  in  making  marks  just  as  they 
delight  in  making  sounds,  so  the  scribble  stage  corresponds 
exactly  to  the  "da  da"  stage  of  oral  language.  The  sight  of 
some  one  using  a  pencil  is  likely  to  set  a  child  to  scribbling,  just 
as  the  talk  of  others  often  sets  the  young  child  to  babbUng.  In 
neither  case  is  there  at  first  any  real  imitation  of  distinct  move- 
ments. A  little  later,  crude  attempts  at  imitating  the  move- 
ments of  others  are  made,  but  with  much  less  persistency  and 
success  than  in  the  case  of  sounds.  Evidently  the  natural  rela- 
tion of  eye  perceptions  to  hand  movements  is  much  less  perfect 
than  between  ear  perceptions  and  vocal  movements. 

In  the  next  stage,  corresponding  to  the  word-learning  stage 
of  oral  language,  drawings  are  made  by  the  child,  not  merely 
for  the  pleasure  of  making  movements  and  the  joy  of  imitating, 
but  in  order  to  express  ideas  of  objects  and  events.  Any  dot 
or  line  or  combination  of  them  which  suggests  to  the  child  the 
appearance  of  any  object,  is  at  first  a  perfectly  satisfactory 
picture  of  it.  Often  a  "picture"  is  named  or  renamed  after  it 
is  made,  because  something  is  suggested  by  the  lines  or  dots. 
What  to  the  child  is  most  essential,  whether  visible  or  not,  is 
indicated,  and  the  rest  unnoticed  or  filled  out  in  the  mind.  The 
stomach  of  a  man  may  be  represented  when  neither  the  rest  of 
the  trunk  nor  the  arms  are  shown.  At  first  the  different  parts 
of  a  man  may  be  scattered  over  the  paper,  a  dot  or  curve  being 
pointed  out  or  made,  as  each  part  —  eye,  mouth,  head,  etc.  — 
is  named. 

A  little  later  much  more  attention  is  paid  to  the  position  of 
one  part  in  relation  to  the  others,  and  still  later,  to  the  relative 
size  of  parts.     This  evidently  corresponds  to  the  word-combin- 


264  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

ing  or  sentence-making  stage  of  language  expression.  The 
child  not  only  tries  to  make  something  which  will  suggest  the 
idea  he  wishes  to  convey,  but  aims  to  represent  objects ;  just  as 
in  language,  his  sentences  become  not  merely  suggestive  of  ideas, 
but  complete  expressions  of  them. 

At  the  time  when  the  child's  drawings  are  partly  symbolic 
and  partly  representative,  they  are  often  very  free  and  imcon- 
strained  expressions  of  his  ideas.  His  make-believe  tendency 
helps  him  to  see  in  his  drawings  all  that  he  meant  by  them.  He 
has  Httle  feeling  of  their  inadequacy,  and  is  ready  to  make  almost 
anything,  and  to  tell  almost  any  story  with  his  graphic  art,  by 
which  both  the  outside  and  inside  of  houses  are  shown,  wind 
or  heat  indicated,  successive  events  pictured,  and  the  important 
parts  shown  by  increased  size.  During  this  period  the  child 
draws  from  what  is  in  his  mind  rather  than  from  what  he  per- 
ceives ;  hence,  his  picture  of  a  man  or  table  is  generic  rather  than 
individual,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  placing  a  model  before 
him  produces  little  or  no  modification  of  the  conventional  design 
he  has  adopted. 

Sooner  or  later,  perhaps  most  frequently  at  about  nine  years 
of  age,  the  child  begins  to  feel  the  inadequacy  of  his  representa- 
tions. This  feeling  is  earlier  and  stronger  because  of  the  criti- 
cisms of  teachers.  He  can  no  longer  believe  that  his  drawing 
really  looks  like  what  he  wishes  to  represent ;  hence,  he  is  not  so 
ready  to  try  to  draw  everything.  This  is  the  time  when  he  needs 
encouragement,  and  some  instruction  as  to  how  he  may  show 
perspective  and  represent  objects  as  they  look  instead  of  as 
they  are.  The  difficulties  of  doing  this  are  so  great,  especially 
when  the  process  is  not  associated  with  the  desire  to  express 
something,  that  only  a  few  ever  regain  their  former  freedom 
of  graphic  expression.  Drawing  becomes  for  most  children, 
therefore,  an  exercise  in  mechanical  imitation  and  representation 
instead  of  a  favorite  means  of  expression.     If  drawing  were 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  265 

taught  in  these  early  stages  as  a  mode  of  telling  what  has  been 
observed,  rather  than  as  an  art,  the  results  would  be  far  better. 
A  little  earlier  than  the  time  at  which  language  acquires  a 
scientific  and  aesthetic  interest,  drawing  acquires  similar  interest, 
and  great  delight  may  be  taken  either  in  mechanical  drawings 
or  in  the  making  of  beautiful  drawings  or  pictures.  All  along 
there  has  been  some  aesthetic  interest  in  colors,  but  now  this 
interest  is  deepened  and  refined,  and  the  appreciation  of  beauty 
of  form  develops.  This  is  the  time  for  artistic  and  mechanical 
drawing  and  for  the  study  of  the  subject  as  a  science  or  as  a  fine 
art,  though  drawing  as  a  convenient  means  of  expressing  ideas 
gained  in  nearly  all  subjects  studied  should  not  be  neglected. 

Methods  of  teaching  drawing 

Drawing  instruction  has  suffered  from  two  sources,  belief  in 
logical  methods  of  teaching  and  the  idea  that  drawing  is  for  the 
training  of  artists.  The  first  has  led  to  the  analysis  of  forms 
into  lines  and  curves  and  to  separate  practice  in  making  them, 
similar  to  the  method  used  in  the  alphabet  and  phonic  methods 
of  teaching  reading.  It  has  also  led  to  the  study  of  type  forms 
and  the  drawing  of  geometrical  figures  before  attempting  objects 
of  nature.  Experience,  however,  shows  that  not  only  are  such 
drawings  less  interesting  to  children,  but  they  really  are  more 
difiicult.  There  is  only  one  way  of  drawing  a  perfectly  straight 
line  or  an  exact  square,  and  any  deviation  from  the  one  cor- 
rect form  is  more  easily  seen  than  corrected.  There  are  scores 
of  ways  of  drawing  a  leaf  or  a  whole  plant  which  will  give  a  fairly 
satisfactory  representation  of  it ;  hence,  results  that  seem  good 
are  obtained  and  the  ability  to  judge  of  drawings  does  not  get 
so  far  ahead  of  the  ability  to  make  them  as  to  produce  dis- 
couragement. 

Much  improvement  has  taken  place  in  this  respect,  but  the 
idea  that  children  should  make  beautiful  drawings  still  domi- 


266  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

nates  to  such  an  extent  that  a  large  proportion  of  children  find 
their  work  in  drawing  unsatisfactory.  They  can  see  their  fail- 
ures so  much  earlier  than  they  can  correct  them  that  there  is 
little  satisfaction  in  what  they  do.  This  is  now  being  remedied 
in  part  by  reUeving  children  of  the  necessity  of  making  beautiful 
forms,  which  is  for  most  of  them  impossible,  and  yet  giving  them 
the  opportunity  to  produce  what  seems  to  them  beautiful  by 
means  of  color.  From  the  aesthetic  point  of  view,  drawing  should 
help  children  to  appreciate  beauty  rather  than  train  them  to 
produce  beauty  such  as  is  required  by  the  artist. 

With  all  the  improvements  which  have  been  made  there  is 
still  too  little  attention  to  drawing  as  a  means  of  expressing 
ideas.  The  motive  for  drawing  a  flower  or  a  cup  should  not 
be  to  make  a  beautiful  picture,  but  to  express  what  is  seen.  The 
children  should  try  to  make  the  drawing  of  a  flower  such  as  to 
indicate  what  kind  it  is  and  which  individual  specimen  was  used 
as  a  model.  In  drawing  a  cup  not  only  should  the  form  be 
similar  to  that  of  the  cup,  but  the  drawing  should  show  from  what 
angle  the  cup  was  seen  by  the  one  who  drew  it.  Only  in  the 
technical  training  of  artists  should  emphasis  be  placed  upon  the 
production  of  a  beautiful  picture. 

There  is  still  too  much  attention  to  immediate  details  in  draw- 
ing and  not  enough  emphasis  upon  the  idea  to  be  expressed  by 
the  drawing  as  a  whole.  To  remedy  this,  there  should  be  much 
more  drawing  from  memory,  the  results  being  corrected  and 
improved  by  fresh  observations  and  renewed  attempts  from 
memory.  There  should  also  be  more  drawing  for  a  purpose, 
such  as  to  indicate  how  to  make  something  or  to  help  in  the 
understanding  of  a  description  or  the  appreciation  of  a  story. 

In  all  this  work  it  is  not  necessary  that  there  shall  be  a  definite, 
logical  sequence  in  the  lessons,  but  that  the  children  shall  under- 
take something  they  are  interested  in  doing  and  that  they  can 
do  in  a  manner  which  is  satisfactory  at  least  to  them. 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  267 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Describe  means  of  expression  employed  by  animals,  and  show  that 
they  are  useful. 

2.  Describe  any  modes  of  expression  that  you  have  noticed  infants  use. 

3.  What  kind  of  words  do  the  bUnd  learn?  The  deaf?  Those  who  are 
both  blind  and  deaf? 

4.  Have  you  ever  had  the  impulse  to  express  yourself  in  other  way§ 
than  by  language,  such  as  painting  or  modeling? 

5.  Give  evidence  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  respond  to  every  stimulus 
by  a  movement,  and  for  every  idea  to  be  expressed  in  movement.  Illustrate 
how  words  may  be  used  in  place  of  other  movements.  Look  up  the  root 
meanings  of  several  words. 

6.  Is  the  growing  custom  of  beginning  to  teach  deaf  children  at  an  early 
age  a  good  one?  Why?  If  a  deaf  and  a  hearing  child  enter  school  at  five, 
which  should  be  farther  along  in  language,  the  deaf  child  at  twelve  or  the 
hearing  child  at  nine?    Why? 

7.  Canyouexpressfeelingby  writing  as  perfectly  as  by  talking?  Why? 
Are  children  under  ten  affected  as  much  by  stories  told  as  by  stories  they 
read?    Why? 

8.  Report  any  instances  you  have  observed  of  playful  or  imitative  use 
of  words  by  young  children. 

9.  Report  any  observations  you  have  made  of  the  serious  efiforts  of 
children  to  learn  words. 

10.  lUustrate  how  necessity  leads  a  child  to  learn  to  imderstand  and  use 
language. 

11.  State  facts  showing  the  prominence  of  one  or  another  of  the  stages  of 
language  learning  of  a  child  you  know. 

12.  Report  just  as  many  examples  of  childish  mispronunciation  as  possi- 
ble, and  state  the  cause  if  you  can.     Compare  tables  of  Lukens  and  Tracy. 

13.  Record  and  report  vocabularies  of  children  of  about  two  years  if 
possible,  noting  pronunciation  and  meaning  and  parts  of  speech  of  all  words. 
Compare  with  Tracy,  Moore,  Gale,  et  al. 

14.  Record  everything  said  by  a  child  of  two  or  three  during  an  hour  or 
two,  and  study  to  discover  omissions  and  other  peculiarities. 

15.  Report  instances  of  children  extending  the  rules  for  forming  endings 
or  in  making  new  forms  of  words. 

16.  Report  what  you  have  done  or  observed  regarding  secret  languages. 
Could  not  the  playful  tendency  to  make  a  langiiage  be  utilized  in  the  study 
of  visual  language  more  than  it  is? 


268  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

17.  Illustrate  how  the  same  kind  of  necessity  which  leads  a  child  to  learn 
oral  language  may  be  used  in  learning  visual  language.  Illustrate  in  detail 
how  oral  language  may  be  used  to  supplement  visual,  e.g.,  the  teacher  says 
part  of  a  sentence  and  wTites  the  rest. 

18.  Estimate  yoiu-  own  vocabulary  by  counting  all  the  words  you  know 
on  every  tenth,  fiftieth,  or  hundredth  page  of  the  dictionary. 

19.  Let  some  one  pose  for  children  of  the  kindergarten  or  first  grade  while 
they  draw.  Examine  the  drawings.  Bring  in  specimens  of  drawings  of 
children  not  yet  in  school.    Compare  Barnes,  Sully,  Lukens,  and  Brown. 

20.  Have  children  of  several  grades  illustrate  a  story,  and  make  a  study 
of  the  drawings. 

21.  Should  drawing  be  taught  children  as  an  art  or  as  a  means  of  expres- 
sion before  ten  years  of  age  ?    Why  ? 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  general  subject  of  expression  and  language,  consult  Romanes,  Mental 
Evolution  in  Man,  chaps,  v  to  ix;  Baldwin,  Vol.  I,  pp.  221-262,  and 
Vol.  II,  pp.  126-139;  Whitney,  Life  and  Growth  of  Language;  Robin- 
son, Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LVI,  pp.  784-798 ;  Hale,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol. 
XXX,  pp.  712-713 ;  Science,  Vol.  XII,  O.  S.,  p.  145. 

On  the  development  of  speech  and  vocabularies,  see  Lukens,  Ped.  Sent.,  Vol. 
Ill,  pp.  424-460;  Tracy,  chap,  v,  also  in  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VI, 
pp.  107-138 ;  Sully,  chap,  v ;  Preyer,  Part  II ;  Moore,  Part  IV ;  Taine, 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  DC,  p.  129 ;  Noble,  Educ.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  44-52,  117- 
121,  188-194;  Chamberlain,  chap,  v;  Compayre,  Vol.  II,  chap,  iii; 
Gale,  Ped.  Sent.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  422-435 ;  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LXI,  pp. 
45-51,  or  in  Univ.  of  Minn.  Psychological  Studies;  Sanford,  Ped.  Sent., 
Vol.  I,  pp.  257-259 ;  W.  S.  Hall,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  585-608 ;  Jr. 
Ch.  and  Ad.,  January,  1902,  pp.  1-13 ;  Kirkpatrick,  Science,  Vol. 
XVIII,  O.  S.,  pp.  107-108,  175-176;  Wolfe,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp. 
141-150;  Jegi,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  241-261 ;  Barnes,  Studies  in 
Ed.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  43-61. 

On  language  teaching,  see  Groszmaim,  Ch.S.  Mo.,\'o\.IV,  pp.  266-278; 
Hinsdale,  Teaching  the  Language  Arts;  Jacobi,  in  Psychological  Notes 
on  Primary  Education,  pp.  62-120;  Iredell,  Educ.,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  233- 
238.  See  also  Williams,  "  Children's  Interest  in  Words,"  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol. 
IX,  pp.  274-295 ;  Hancock,  "  Children's  Tendencies  in  Written  Lan- 
guage," N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  646-649;  and  Judd,  chap,  viii,  on 
the  process  of  reading,  and  chap,  vii,  on  writing. 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT 


269 


On  development  of  interest  and  ability  in  drawing,  see  Shinn ;  Brown,  Univ. 
of  Cal.  Studies,  1897,  pp.  75  ;  Barnes,  Studies,  Vol.  I,  pp.  283-294,  Vol. 
II,  pp.  75-77,  163-179  (also  a  child's  drawings  in  every  number) ;  Sully, 
chap,  x;  Lukens,  Fed.  Sem.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  79-110;  Chamberlain,  pp. 
190-21 1 ;  Hart,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  193-196 ;  Clarke,  Ed.  Rev., 
Vol.  XIII,  pp.  76-82  ;  O'Shea,  N.  E.  A.,  1894,  pp.  1015-1023  ;  GaUa- 
gher,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  130-134 ;  Scott,  Trans.  III.  Ch.  S.  Soc, 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  12  ;  F.  Burk,  Fed.  Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  296-323 ;  Fitz,  Pop. 
Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LI,  pp.  755-765. 


Later  References 

Books 

Ayer 

Huey 

Tanner 

Chamberlain 

Kirkpatrick  (3) 

Taylor 

Cook  and  O'Shea 

McMurry 

Thompson 

Dearborn 

O'Shea  (i) 

Thorndike  (9  &  10) 

Drummond 

Sandiford 

Tracy 

Freeman 

Sully 

Watson 

GeseU 

Articles 

Bateman,  W.  G.  A  Child's  Progress  in  Speech  with  Detailed  Vocabu- 
laries.   J.  Educal.  Psychol.,  1914,  Vol.  5,  pp.  307-320. 

Bateman,  W.  G.  The  Language  Status  of  Three  Children  at  the  Same 
Age.    Ped.  Sem.,  1916,  Vol.  23,  pp.  211-240. 

Boggs,  Lucinda  P.  How  Children  Learn  to  Read.  Ped.  Sem.,  1905, 
Vol.  12,  pp.  496-504- 

Bohn,  W.  E.  First  Steps  in  Verbal  Expression.  Ped.  Sem.,  1914,  Vol. 
21,  pp.  578-595- 

Brandenburg,  Geo.  C.  Language  of  a  Three  Year  Old  Child.  Ped.  Sem., 
191 5,  Vol.  22,  pp.  89-120. 

Brandenburg,  G.  C.  and  Julia.  Language  Development  During  the  Fourth 
Year.    Ped.  Sem.,  1916,  Vol.  23,  pp.  14-29. 

Briggs,  Thomas  H.  Formal  English  Grammar.  Teachers  College 
Record,  1913,  Vol.  14,  pp.  251-343. 

Burnham,  Wm.  H.  The  Hygiene  of  Psychology  of  Spelling.  Ped.  Sem., 
1906,  Vol.  13,  pp.  474-501. 

Burnham,  Wm.  H.  The  Hygiene  of  Drawing.  Ped.  Sem.,  1907,  Vol.  14, 
pp.  289-304. 


270  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Carr,  H.  P.    Experimental  Studies  in  the  Teaching  of  Spelling.    Teachers 

CoUege  Record,  191 2,  Vol.  13,  pp.  37-66. 
Chamberlain,  A.  F.  and  Isabel  C.     Studies  of  a  Child.     Fed.  Sem.,  1905, 

Vol.  12,  pp.  427-453- 
Charters,  W.  W.    A  Spelling  Hospital  in  the  High  School.    The  School 

Rev.,  1910,  p.  192  ff. 
Conradi,  Edward.    Psychology  and  Pathology  of  Speech  Development  in 

the  Child.    Ped.  Sem.,  1904,  Vol.  11,  pp.  328-380. 
Cook,  W.  A.    Shall  We  Teach    Spelling  by  Rule.    J.   Educal.   Psych., 

1912,  Vol.  3,  pp.  316-325. 
Coppersmith,  Mary  E.    Suggestions  in  Teaching  English.     Ped.  Sem.,  1906, 

Vol.  13,  pp.  461-473- 
Doran,  Edwin  W.    A  Study  of  Vocabularies.    Ped.  Sem.,  1907,  Vol.  14, 

pp.  401-438. 
Fulton,   Martha  J.    An  Experiment   in  Teaching  Spelling.    Ped.  Sem., 

1914,  Vol.  21,  pp.  287-289. 

Grant,  J.  K.    The  Child's  Vocabulary  and  Its  Growth.    Ped.  Sem.,  1915, 

Vol.  22,  pp.  183-203. 
Grupe,  Mary  A.    Phonics  in  Relation  to  Early  Reading.    Ped.  Sem.,  1916, 

Vol.  23,  pp.  175-183. 
HaU,  G.  S.    The  Psychological  Aspects  of  Teaching  Modem  Language. 

Ped.  Sem.,  1914,  Vol.  21,  pp.  256-263. 
Heilig,  Matthias  R.    A  Child's  Vocabulary.     Ped.  Sem.,  1913,  Vol.  20, 

pp.  1-16. 
Hoyt,  Franklin  S.    The  Place  of  Grammar  in  the  Elementary  Curriculum. 

Teachers  College  Record,  1906,  Vol.  7,  pp.  467-494. 
Kline,  L.  W.      A   Study  on  the    Psychology   of  Spelling.      J.    Educal. 

Psych.,  1912,  Vol.  3,  pp.  381-400. 
Lagenbeck,  Mildred.    A  Study  of  a  Five  Year  Old  Child.    Ped.  Sem., 

1915,  Vol.  22,  pp.  65-88. 

Libby,  Walter.    An  Experiment  in  Learning  a  Foreign  Language.    Ped. 

Sem.,  1910,  Vol.  17,  pp.  81-96. 
Mateer,  Florence.    The  Vocabulary  of  a  Fovu:  Year  Old  Boy.    Ped.  Sem., 

1908,  Vol.  15,  pp.  63-74. 
MacDougall,  Robert.    The  Child's  Speech.    J.  Educal.  Psych.,  191 2,  Vol. 

3,  pp.  423-429,  507-513,  57(^576.    Also  1913,  Vol.  4,  pp.  85-96. 
Melville,  A.  H.    An  Investigation  of  the  Function  and  Use  of  Slang.    Ped. 

Sem.,  191 2,  Vol.  19,  pp.  94-100. 
Nice,  Margaret  M.    The  Development  of  a  Child's  Vocabulary  in  Relation 

to  Environment.    Ped.  Sem.,  191 5,  Vol.  22,  pp.  35-64. 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  271 

Ogden,  R.  M.    Knowing  and  Expressing.    Ped.  Sem.,  1911,  Vol.  18,  pp. 

47-53- 
Pelsma,  John  R.    A  Child's  Vocabulary  and  Its  Development.    Ped.  Sem., 

1910,  Vol.  17,  pp.  328-369. 
Rowe,  E.  C.  and  Helen  N.    The  Vocabulary  of  a  Child  at  Four  and  Six 

Years  of  Age.     Ped.  Sem.,  1913,  Vol.  20,  pp.  187-208. 
Sechrist,  Frank  K.    The  Psychology  of  Unconventional  Language.    Ped. 

Sem.,  1913,  Vol.  20,  pp.  413-459- 
Snyder,  Alice  O.    Notes  on  the  Talk  of  a  Two  and  a  Half  Year  Old  Boy, 

Ped.  Sem.,  1914,  Vol.  21,  pp.  412-424. 
Suzzallo,    Henry.     Comparative    Experimental    Teaching    in     Spelling. 

Teachers  College  Record,  1912,  Vol.  13,  pp.  1-33. 
Trettien,  A.  W.    Psychology  of  the  Language  Interest  of  Children.     Ped. 

Sem.,  1904,  Vol.  II,  pp.  113-177. 
Whipple,  Professor  and  Mrs.  Guy  M.    The  Vocabulary  of  a  Three  Year 

Old  Boy  with  Some  Interpretative  Comments.    Ped.   Sem.,   1909, 

Vol.  16,  pp.  1-22. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT 

GENERAL  ORDER  OF  DEVELOPMENT 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  child  begms  life  with  little  or 
no  conscious  intelligence,  yet  with  well-marked  reflex  and  in- 
stinctive tendencies  to  act  for  its  own  good.  This  unconscious 
mechanical  intelligence  controls  the  infant's  action  and  enables 
it  to  survive.  It  also  determines  the  general  characteristics  of 
conscious  intelligence,  for  it  determines  the  kind  and  sequence 
of  movements  and,  to  some  extent,  of  sensations  other  than 
motor,  as  the  child  acts  and  reacts  in  ways  favoring  self-preser- 
vation. 

Intelligence  develops  by  utilizing  past  experiences  in  reacting 
to  new  situations.  Reflex  and  instinctive  tendencies  produce 
reactions  which  give  the  original  basis  of  knowledge.  As  various 
instincts  ripen,  the  tendencies  to  react  so  as  to  get  experiences 
appropriate  to  their  satisfaction  increase,  and  thus  the  materials 
with  which  intellect  deals,  naturally  vary  with  age.  What 
the  child  shall  be  interested  in  and  the  general  lines  along  which 
intellectual  development  shall  proceed,  are  thus  determined  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent  at  each  age  by  the  instinctive  tend- 
encies most  prominent  at  that  time. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  natural  and  social  environment  of  the 
child  furnishes  the  outer  stimuli  to  mental  activity  and  deter- 
mines the  situations  which  must  be  met  by  the  intellectual 
responses  of  the  individual.  These  environmental  influences 
often  have  even  more  effect  in  determining  interests  and  the 

272 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  273 

general  lines  of  intellectual  development  than  do  native  talents. 
They  cannot,  however,  wholly  modify  fundamental  instinctive 
tendencies.  For  example,  the  same  kind  of  interest  in  love 
stories  cannot  be  aroused  in  a  child  of  six  as  in  one  of  sixteen. 

The  chief  problem  of  mental  development  from  the  intellectual 
side  concerns  the  method  of  utilizing  past  experiences  in  reacting 
to  varying  situations.  The  intellect  is  instinctively  applied  to 
the  task  of  obtaining  the  most  satisfactory  result  as  easily  and 
quickly  as  possible.  A  child  may  show  as  high  a  grade  of  in- 
telligence in  doing  this  as  does  an  adult,  but  the  adult  has  a  dif- 
ferent way  of  using  past  experiences  in  meeting  the  new  situation ; 
and  this  in  part  constitutes  the  greater  maturity  of  the  adult 
intellect.  This  maturing  of  intelligence  is  largely  the  result  of 
extensive  experiences,  but  not  wholly ;  for  some  intellects,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  feeble-minded,  never  mature,  and  extensive 
experience  of  a  certain  kind  cannot  produce  exactly  the  same 
kind  of  maturity  in  a  child  which  is  found  in  an  adult,  although 
it  may  almost  do  so  in  one  or  two  narrow  lines.  Maturing  of 
general  intelligence,  like  growth,  proceeds  much  more  rapidly  in 
the  early  years  of  development. 

The  most  elementary  form  of  intellectual  activity  which  aids 
in  meeting  varying  situations  is  perceptual.  It  requires  sensory 
discrimination  which  makes  it  possible  to  vary  the  reaction  in 
fitting  ways  according  to  slight  variations  in  the  situation  and 
the  exact  nature  of  the  stimuli.  By  such  sensory  discrimina- 
tions, an  individual  is  able  to  select  more  and  more  accurately 
suitable  food,  avoid  injuries,  and  react  in  the  right  way  to  com- 
panions. The  greater  the  intelligence,  the  more  readily  are 
modifications  of  reactions  made,  and  the  more  quickly  is 
the  most  favorable  one  found.  When  such  favorable  reactions 
have  been  found,  habits  are  soon  established.  After  that,  con- 
scious intelligence  has  little  more  to  do  with  such  special  acts 
as  long  as  the  conditions  remain  essentially  the  same.     In- 


274  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

telligence  thus  helps  in  modifying  and  combining  natural  reac- 
tions into  useful  habits  of  the  individual.  So  far  as  the  particular 
reaction  is  concerned,  conscious  intelligence  and  will  are  used 
chiefly  during  the  period  when  the  native  reactions  are  being 
modified  into  particular  habits,  after  which  they  play  little  part 
in  meeting  similar  situations. 

It  is  found  that  when  an  animal  or  child  is  presented  with  a 
new  situation  involving  different  stimuli  and  calling  for  a  dif- 
ferent reaction,  the  way  in  which  this  situation  is  met  depends 
upon  previous  habits.  Sometimes  a  previous  habit  delays  the 
finding  of  the  best  response  to  the  new  situation,  and  sometimes 
it  hastens  it.  Several  related  habits,  not  too  firmly  estabhshed, 
are  nearly  always  helpful  in  learning  the  right  response  to  new 
situations.  The  grade  of  intelligence  of  any  creature  corresponds 
to  the  readiness  with  which  past  experiences  in  learning  are 
utilized  in  learning  something  new.  Increased  ability  in  dis- 
criminating what  in  the  present  situation  is  essentially  like 
former  situations  is  a  mark  of  maturing  intelligence.  It  involves 
increased  analysis  of  situations  and  classification  of  elements 
which  are  similar.  In  this  an  older  animal  as  well  as  an  older 
human  being  usually  shows  greater  maturity  than  a  younger, 
even  when  they  have  had  the  same  amount  of  experience  of 
the  particular  kind  related  to  the  thing  being  learned,  e.g.,  sl 
series  of  mazes,  problems,  or  puzzles.  All  that  precedes  applies 
to  both  animals  and  children  confronted  by  a  situation  involving 
immediate  sensory  stimuli,  which  may  be  met  by  the  use  of 
things  which  are  present.  In  the  exercise  of  such  perceptual 
intelligence  some  animals  and  feeble-minded  persons  rival 
normal  human  beings. 

There  is  another  form  of  intellectual  activity,  representative 
in  character,  which  is  engaged  in  by  normal  children  at  a  few 
years  of  age,  which  is  almost  if  not  quite  impossible  to  animals. 
This  is  used  in  reacting  in  advance  to  situations  not  sensorially 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         275 

present.  A  little  girl  plans  what  she  will  have  at  the  play  tea 
party  when  her  little  friend  comes.  In  such  cases  the  situation 
is  represented  and  also  the  suitable  reaction  to  be  made,  and  no 
immediate  sensory  discrimination  is  involved.  The  imaging 
process  required  is  quite  a  different  form  of  intelligent  action 
from  the  sense  perceptual  process  previously  described.  It  is, 
however,  founded  on  sense  experience  and  represents  a  higher 
development  of  intelligence.  There  is,  of  course,  a  great  deal 
of  mental  activity  of  an  intermediate  stage  in  which  some  of  the 
elements  of  the  situation  or  the  reaction  are  sensorially  present 
or  where  something  that  is  present  is  used  to  represent  what  is 
not,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  children's  dramatic  plays.  The 
ability  to  plan  for  a  distant  future  which  is  characteristic  of 
human  beings  as  compared  with  animals,  and  of  adults  as  com- 
pared with  young  children,  is  dependent  largely  upon  the  devel- 
opment of  a  kind  of  intelligence  that  can  act  successfully  by 
means  of  representative  processes. 

There  is  a  still  higher  form  of  intellectual  process  which  is 
used  by  more  developed  and  mature  minds  which  may  be  de- 
signated as  conceptual  intelligence.  In  the  exercise  of  this  form 
of  intelligence,  the  sensations  given  by  material  objects  have 
little  part,  and  even  the  images  of  things  are  not  necessary. 
The  situation  to  be  met  does  not  involve  discrimination  of  sen- 
sations or  clear  representation  of  a  particular  past  experience, 
but  it  does  involve  in  a  high  degree  the  utilizing  of  many  past 
experiences.  In  most  instances,  symbols  are  observed  or  imaged 
and  used  to  represent  not  any  one  individual  experience,  but  the 
classified  and  generalized  results  of  many  similar  experiences. 
For  example,  in  answering  this  question,  "What  would  you  do 
if  you  were  in  the  woods  and  saw  some  wolves  coming  toward 
you?"  one  does  not  need  to  observe  or  image  a  wolf  or  a  tree 
(although  he  may  do  so)  in  order  to  mentally  meet  the  situation. 
The  s3anbol  "wolves"  takes  the  place  of  a  group  of  dangerous 


276  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

animals  which  cannot  climb,  while  "woods"  is  the  S3anbol  of  a 
group  of  objects  which  may  be  climbed  by  human  beings. 

The  more  mature  and  highly  developed  the  intellect,  the  more 
will  it  be  possible  to  thus  mentally  meet  situations  which  are 
not  present,  without  detailed  representation  of  them.  The  im- 
portant elements  of  past  experiences  have  been  selected  and 
classified  in  such  a  way  that  they,  as  well  as  the  proper  mode  of 
reaction,  may  be  represented  by  symbols.  This  form  of  reaction 
is  impossible  to  young  children  and  to  the  feeble-minded  as  well 
as  to  animals.  A  young  child  or  a  feeble-minded  individual 
might  find  how  many  blocks  an  inch  square  would  be  required 
to  make  one  row  around  the  inside  of  a  box  three  by  four  inches, 
by  placing  them  in  position,  then  counting  them.  An  intelligent 
child  of  ten  might  be  able  to  solve  the  problem  in  the  absence 
of  both  box  and  blocks  by  imaging  them  or  by  making  the  marks 
on  paper  to  represent  them.  An  older  person  could  learn  to 
solve  all  such  problems  by  means  of  symbols,  using  such  a 
formula  as,  "The  number  of  blocks  equals  the  perimeter  of  the 
box,  less  four."  The  first  method  is  slow  and  adapted  to  un- 
developed intellects,  the  second  is  more  rapid  and  requires 
human  intelligence  of  considerable  capacity,  while  the  last  re- 
quires a  highly  developed  intelligence  able  to  use  symbols  in 
the  place  of  actual  or  represented  past  experiences  of  certain 
kinds,  and  can  be  used  with  much  greater  rapidity  and  certainty 
when  the  numbers  involved  are  large,  than  can  the  other 
methods. 

We  find,  then,  that  development  or  maturity  of  intelligence  is 
marked  by  changes  in  interests  growing  out  of  changes  in  in- 
stincts and  by  a  greater  and  greater  independence  of  immediate 
and  particular  sensory  experiences.  The  development  of  a 
higher  and  more  efiicient  type  of  intelligence  in  a  particular  line 
may  be  hastened  by  setting  before  the  individual  numerous 
situations  or  problems  and  stimulating  him  to  solve  them,  and 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         277 

by  directing  attention  to  the  essential  elements  of  the  situations 
and  of  the  successful  reactions  to  them.  If,  however,  a  child  is 
taught  formulas  to  be  memorized  and  used  mechanically  without 
having  sufficient  sensory  and  representative  experiences  of  what 
the  symbols  represent,  he  will  not  have  gained  anything  that 
will  help  him  in  generalizing  from  other  experiences  and  thus 
exercising  a  higher  form  of  intelligence. 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   DISCRIMINATION 

Discrimination  in  early  life  is  one  of  the  most  essential  of 
all  mental  powers,  and  it  seems  to  be  greater  in  adults  than  in 
children.  It  may  be  doubted,  however,  whether  the  better 
discrimination  of  adults  is  not  a  matter  of  special  knowledge  and 
practice,  helped  a  little  by  increased  power  of  analysis  and  con- 
centration. An  Indian  can  read  the  signs  of  the  passage  of 
enemies  or  wild  animals  much  more  perfectly  than  the  white 
man,  who  is  so  acute  as  to  read  little  black  marks  on  paper ; 
a  sailor  can  see  land  long  before  the  landsman,  and  a  blind  man 
can  recognize  persons  by  touch  or  sound  with  a  readiness  astonish- 
ing to  a  seeing  man.  In  all  these  cases  one  seems  to  have  greater 
power  of  discrimination  than  the  other ;  but  in  every  case  it  is 
probably  wholly  the  result  of  special  knowledge  and  practice. 
Each  knows  what  signs  to  look  for  and  what  they  mean,  while 
the  man  of  different  training  is  familiar  with  an  entirely  different 
set  of  signs.  Each  has  certain  centers  developed,  but  we  cannot 
say  that  one  has  greater  general  power  of  discrimination  than  the 
other.  The  effect  of  knowledge  upon  discrimination  is  impressed 
upon  one  when  he  tries  to  read  familiar  sentences  and  unknown 
names  in  a  dim  light,  or  in  poor  writing,  for  one  may  easily  be 
read  while  the  other  cannot  be  made  out  at  all. 

The  extensive  experiments  of  Gilbert  upon  children  of  school 
age  indicated  that  their  power  of  discrimination  of  weight,  dis- 
tance, color,  pitch,  etc.,  increased  from  two  to  five  times  with 


278  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

age  —  a  difference  corresponding  pretty  well  to  that  which  may 
be  produced  in  certain  lines  in  a  short  time  by  special  training. 
Since  most  of  his  tests  were  made  in  such  a  way  that  comparison 
and  classification  of  a  number  of  stimuli,  as  ten  colors,  were 
required,  instead  of  mere  discrimination  between  two,  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  superiority  of  the  older  children  was  due  partly 
to  increased  power  of  concentration,  systematic  comparison  and 
expression,  and  partly  to  greater  practice  in  making  discrimina- 
tions similar  to  those  tested,  and  not  at  all  to  any  fundamental 
difference  in  the  power  of  discrimination  of  children  of  different 
ages. 

DEVELOPMENT   IN  RATE   OF  MENTAL  ACTIVITY 

The  difference  in  the  mental  quickness  or  reaction  time  of 
children  and  adults  is  very  marked,  but  it  may  be  doubted  if  it 
would  exist  were  both  to  face  an  experience  equally  new  to  both. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  any  act,  physical  or  mental,  can  be 
performed  more  quickly  after  practice.  The  reasons  for  this  are  : 
(i)  nervous  impulses  move  more  rapidly  so  that  movement  and 
thought  are  quicker ;  (2)  they  go  more  directly  and  continuously 
so  that  motion  and  thought  are  less  diffuse;  and  (3)  several 
series  of  impulses  move  at  once,  as  when  one  is  reading  notes, 
playing  with  both  hands,  and  singing  at  the  same  time. 

It  is  not  unusual  for  simple  reaction  time  to  be  reduced  one 
half  by  practice ;  and  complex  tasks  are  frequently  done,  after 
a  few  months'  practice,  in  from  a  half  to  a  fifth  of  the  time 
required  for  the  first  performance.  Hence,  it  is  not  improbable 
that  the  difference  in  mental  quickness  of  children  and  adults 
is  entirely  the  result  of  incidental  practice  in  activities  which 
are  the  same,  or  partly  the  same,  as  those  tested.  The  tests 
of  Bryan,  Hancock,  and  Gilbert,  on  rates  of  movement,  and  of 
Gilbert,  Bentley,  Partridge,  and  Curtis  on  reaction  time,  both 
simple  and  complex,  show  that  from  school  age  to  maturity  the 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  279 

rate  of  movement  and  of  mental  activity  is  not  quite  doubled, 
and  that  the  improvement  is  greatest  where  there  has  been  most 
special  training,  as  in  naming  printed  words,  rather  than  naming 
pictures  or  objects ;  hence,  there  is  little  reason  to  doubt  that  the 
difference  between  adults  and  children  in  rate  of  mental  activity 
is  almost  wholly  the  result  of  training,  either  special  or  incidental. 

INCREASE   IN  MENTAL   GRASP 

That  the  child's  mental  grasp  is  small,  is  evident  from  his 
first  attempts  at  speech.  He  cannot  keep  several  syllables  in 
mind  long  enough  to  pronounce  them  all.  His  ideas  are  ex- 
pressed by  means  of  single  words  or  gestures.  Soon  he  uses 
two  words,  usually  a  predicate  and  object  or  modifier.  His 
sentences  grow  longer  as  adjectives  and  other  modifying  words 
are  added,  but  it  is  a  long  time  before  conjunctions  are  used  and 
compound  sentences  formed.  Complex  sentences,  which  re- 
quire even  more  mental  grasp,  come  still  later.  A  little  girl 
of  thirty-two  months  understood,  when  told  to  eat  her  potatoes 
with  her  spoon  and  her  meat  with  her  fork,  but  was  unable  to 
hold  the  four  ideas  in  mind  while  she  got  the  right  words  in 
which  to  express  them.  A  few  days  later,  however,  she  used 
her  first  conjunction  in  the  sentence,  "I  pin  it  there  so  baby  can 
get  it."  Children  are  often  confused  when  told  to  do  more  than 
one  thing,  because  they  have  not  sufficient  grasp  of  consciousness 
to  hold  all  in  the  mind  at  once.  The  fact  found  in  many  tests, 
that  children  of  school  age  read  by  words  and  cannot  carry  in 
their  minds  any  but  short  sentences,  while  older  children  and 
adults  read  by  phrases  or  even  clauses,  and  can  carry  in  conscious- 
ness enough  of  a  long,  complex,  and  compound  sentence  to  give 
each  clause  the  right  expression,  is  very  significant. 

The  experiments  of  Jacobs,  Jastrow,  Bolton,  Smedley,  and  the 
author,  upon  children  of  school  age,  show  that  their  ability 
to  repeat  or  write  a  list  of  letters,  figures,  syllables,  or  familiar 


28o  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

words,  immediately  after  they  have  been  heard  or  seen,  generally 
increases  with  age  by  about  one  third,  from  the  age  of  eight  or 
nine  to  eighteen.  As  the  reproduction  is  immediate,  it  is  not  so 
much  a  matter  of  memory  proper  as  of  mental  grasp. 

The  cause  of  this  increase  in  mental  grasp  with  age  is  probably 
the  same  as  that  which  makes  it  possible  for  us  to  hold  in  mind 
a  long  description  of  a  route  to  be  taken  among  familiar  objects ; 
while  a  short  description  of  a  route  among  unfamiliar  objects 
cannot  be  kept  in  mind  long  enough  perhaps  to  get  started  right. 
The  same  cause  makes  it  easy  for  a  skillful  chess  or  checker  player 
to  see  at  once  many  more  results  of  a  move  than  he  could  when 
he  began,  or  for  an  experienced  musician  to  play  with  both  hands, 
work  the  pedals,  perceive  the  notes,  and  sing  the  words  of  a  song 
all  at  the  same  time.  In  other  words,  ideas,  or  a  series  of  ideas, 
and  even  combinations  of  several  series  of  ideas  that  have  be- 
come definite  and  well  established,  are  easily  held  in  mind, 
while  indefinite  and  newly  formed  ideas  can  be  kept  in  conscious- 
ness only  in  limited  numbers  and  with  effort. 

The  ideas  of  the  child  are  largely  new,  while  those  of  the  adult 
are  oftener  old  or  connected  with  old  ideas;  hence  the  adult's 
mental  grasp  is  greater  chiefly  because  of  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience. The  effect  of  knowledge  on  mental  grasp  is  well  shown 
by  a  series  of  experiments  in  which  first-grade  children  and  adults 
reproduce  ordinary  letters,  Greek  letters,  and  familiar  sentences. 
The  adults  have  little  advantage  in  the  case  of  Greek  letters,  a 
great  deal  in  ordinary  letters,  and  are  almost  infinitely  better 
in  reproducing  the  letters  making  a  sentence.  Evidently  the 
difference  is  due  to  greater  familiarity  and  increased  mental 
grasp. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF   PERCEPTION 

Perception  depends  upon  three  things :  (i)  the  sensations 
experienced  at  the  moment;    (2)  power  of  discrimination,  and 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         281 

(3)  the  results  of  past  experiences  which  are  reproduced  more  or 
less  perfectly  at  the  moment  of  perceiving.  The  power  of  dis- 
crimination varies,  as  we  have  seen,  with  special  practice.  The 
chief  difference,  therefore,  between  the  perceptions  of  a  child 
and  of  an  adult,  is  in  the  past  experiences  which  are  called  up  by 
the  sensations. 

Since  the  adult  has  many  more  experiences  that  may  be  sug- 
gested by  a  sensation  than  a  child,  there  is  a  greater  possibility 
of  a  wrong  idea  being  awakened ;  but  this  is  offset  by  greater 
power  of  discrimination ;  hence,  though  the  adult  is  not  always 
more  quick  in  classifying  an  object  or  interpreting  a  sensation, 
he  is  likely  to  be  more  definite  and  accurate  than  the  child  who 
has  fewer  possibilities  suggested  from  his  limited  experience, 
but  who  does  not  so  readily  analyze  and  note  essentials.  The 
difference  is  not,  however,  greater  than  that  between  adults  of 
different  occupations,  such  as  a  botanist  and  a  milliner,  a  printer 
and  a  pilot. 

The  practical  necessity  in  all  perception  is  not  to  note  the 
exact  nature  of  the  sensations  produced  by  different  objects 
and  under  different  circumstances,  but  to  recognize  objects  and 
react  to  them  in  the  proper  way.  Nothing  but  a  sphere  gives, 
in  all  positions,  the  same  visual  sensations ;  hence,  we  learn  to 
know,  not  the  apparent  form  of  objects,  but  their  real  form. 
This  "real"  form,  however,  is  simply  the  appearance  which 
they  assume  when  perceived  most  clearly,  i.e.,  when  near  at 
hand,  directly  in  front,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  sight. 
Other  sensations  vary  also.  For  example,  the  sound  produced 
by  an  object  depends  upon  what  it  is  struck  with,  as  well  as  its 
distance ;  while  objects  vary  in  taste  according  as  they  are  more 
or  less  hot  or  cold,  wet  or  dry,  etc. 

Before  the  child  enters  school,  he  has  learned  to  know  just 
what  appearances  may  be  relied  upon  as  indicating  a  certain 
form,  sound,  taste,  or  touch.     He  has  also  learned  an  immense 


282  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

number  of  correspondences  between  the  different  senses,  so  that 
he  no  longer  needs  to  feel  of  most  things  he  sees,  in  order  to 
know,  as  much  as  he  wishes,  of  how  they  will  feel,  or  to  strike 
or  taste  them,  to  know  how  they  will  sound  or  taste.  Yet  there 
are  many  appearances  and  correspondences  which  he  does  not 
know  very  well,  and  hence,  as  compared  with  adults,  he  is  still 
at  considerable  disadvantage  in  judging  objects.  He  also  fails 
to  note  fine  distinctions  unless  necessity  requires  it,  for  very 
different  sensations  have  nearly  the  same  practical  meaning  to 
him. 

The  necessity  of  identifying  an  object  by  means  of  sensations 
suggesting  its  "true  appearance,"  rather  than  by  the  exact 
sensations  it  gives,  together  with  the  limited  power  of  discrimina- 
tion which  children  have,  renders  them  very  suggestible,  or,  in 
other  words,  undiscriminating  as  to  whether  a  sensation  is 
actually  experienced  or  only  called  up  by  other  sensations. 
Small  found,  that  of  children  in  the  first  grade  about  nine  out  of 
ten  could  be  made  to  think  that  they  experienced  sensations  of 
taste,  smell,  temperature,  and  visual  movements,  when  no  such 
sensations  were  given  them ;  while  the  proportion  that  could 
thus  be  deceived,  became  very  much  smaller  in  the  higher  grades. 
The  author's  tests  with  ink  sp)ots  also  showed  that  critical  judg- 
ment becomes  more  prominent  than  suggestibility  in  the  fourth, 
fifth,  and  sixth  grades. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  habit  of  the  adult  mind  of  looking 
only  for  essential  characteristics  may  lead  him  into  error  when 
the  conditions  or  his  purposes  change.  For  example,  it  is  very 
hard  for  one  who  has  been  reading  rapidly  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  thought,  to  read  a  printed  page  for  the  purpose  of  correct- 
ing the  proof.  If  the  thought  and  language  are  very  familiar, 
as  when  the  proof  is  of  an  article  by  one's  self,  the  errors  over- 
looked are  likely  to  be  very  numerous.  Pillsbury's  tests  show 
that  familiar  words  misspelled  are  frequently  read  without  the 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         283 

error  being  noticed,  and  that  letters  spelling  nothing  are  often 
seen  as  words.  Children,  therefore,  sometimes  notice  mistakes 
in  spelling  and  changes  in  the  arrangement  of  things  which  are 
overlooked  by  adults,  because  the  tendency  to  perceive  certain 
words  and  arrangements  is  not  so  strongly  developed  in  them. 

Since  the  purpose  of  perception  is  to  identify  objects  and  make 
the  proper  reaction  to  them,  and  since  the  characteristics  to  be 
noted  differ  according  to  the  end  in  view,  quickness  and  accuracy 
in  perception  depend  on  discrimination  in  relation  to  the  end  to 
be  gained.  Definiteness  and  accuracy  of  perception  can,  there- 
fore, only  be  developed  by  practice  in  perceiving /or  a  purpose. 
Careful  discrimination  of  sensations,  analysis,  and  the  discovery 
of  essential  characteristics,  and  the  learning  of  what  character- 
istics go  together,  so  that  when  one  is  experienced,  others  may 
be  inferred,  are  the  natural  results  of  efforts  to  obtain  practical 
ends.  For  example,  in  learning  to  tell  when  watermelons  are 
ripe,  the  color,  hardness,  sound,  and  appearance  of  the  melon 
and  of  the  curl  are  discriminated,  and  their  connection  with  the 
inside  appearance  and  taste  of  the  melon  is  noted.  Or,  again, 
in  trying  to  build  a  house  with  blocks  so  that  it  will  stand  and 
look  pretty,  careful  discrimination  of  form,  position,  size,  and 
color  of  the  blocks,  and  of  their  relation  to  each  other,  is  neces- 
sary. Similar  statements  are  true  of  nearly  all  games,  plays,  and 
construction  in  which  children  engage,  as  weU  as  in  drawing, 
writing,  and  all  affairs  of  practical  life. 

The  function  of  the  teacher  in  such  training  is  principally 
to  put  before  the  child  interesting  and  definite  things  to  be  done 
or  found  out,  and  to  occasionally  direct  his  attention  toward 
essential  characteristics  so  that  habits  of  analytic  and  concentrated 
attention  will  be  developed.  This  gives  a  training  in  perception 
not  to  be  gained  by  any  series  of  exercises  for  the  special  purpose 
of  training  the  senses  only. 

Since  such  training  of  perception  is,  in  the  nature  of  the  case, 


284  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

special  as  regards  the  purposes  directing  it,  general  training  in 
perception  can  be  secured  only  by  getting  children  interested 
not  only  in  many  things,  but  in  many  things  from  various  points 
of  view,  as  the  practical,  scientific,  aesthetic. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  POWER  TO  IMAGE 

True  images  are  formed  only  when  an  object  not  present  is 
represented,  as  when  a  child  recognizes  that  some  person  or  ob- 
ject is  not  in  the  usual  place.  Language  is  probably  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  developing  such  images :  the  sound  of  the  word 
"dog,"  being  closely  associated  with  the  animal,  calls  up  a 
visual  image  of  him  just  as  his  barking  does.  Words  are  for 
some  time  almost  as  closely  associated  with  objects  as  are  the 
sensations  concerned  in  their  perception.  The  name  of  an  object 
is  really,  to  the  child,  a  part  of  his  perception  of  the  object; 
hence,  it  is  not  strange  that  a  little  boy  put  a  curl  at  the  end  of 
the  word  *'dog"  he  had  written,  to  represent  the  tail,  or  that  a 
little  girl  of  three  and  a  half  readily  learned  the  script  word 
"cow,"  because  the  finishing  stroke  of  the  last  letter  looked  to 
her  like  a  horn  or  "hook,"  as  she  called  it. 

After  a  child  has  gained  the  power  to  form  mental  images,  he 
takes  much  the  same  pleasure  in  forming  them  that  he  showed  a 
little  earlier  in  getting  sensations  of  all  kinds.  His  first  interest 
in  stories  is  largely  the  pleasure  of  forming  mental  pictures  of 
all  the  familiar  objects  and  acts  named.  It  is  some  time  before 
the  connection  of  the  parts  of  the  story  is  of  much  significance  to 
him. 

By  the  time  the  child  is  three  or  four  years  old,  the  parts  of 
short  stories  are  connected  so  as  to  give  a  pretty  good  under- 
standing of  the  story  as  a  whole.  This  means  that  the  mental 
grasp  and  power  of  constructive  imagination  is  developed  so 
that  he  can  combine  mentally  several  acts  and  images  according 
to  verbal  direction. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  285 

Soon  the  child  recognizes  his  power  in  this  direction,  and 
begins  to  combine  mental  images  according  to  his  own  ideas. 
He  now  experiences  something  of  the  same  pleasure  that  he  felt 
when  he  got  beyond  the  stage  in  which  sensations  were  changed 
for  him  by  the  action  of  other  people,  into  the  stage  in  which 
he  effected  the  changes  for  himself  by  his  own  movements. 
His  daily  sensory  activities  have  lost  the  charm  of  novelty,  the 
stories  told  him  have  directed  his  imagining  in  a  way  that  is 
new  and  pleasurable,  yet  this  pleasure  is  dependent  upon  the 
will  of  others ;  hence,  it  is  an  important  epoch  in  the  child's 
development  when  he  learns  that  he  can  use  the  power  of  free 
creative  imagination,  and  experience  whatever  combinations  of 
mental  images  he  wishes,  independent  of  his  surroundings  and  of 
the  action  of  other  people.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that 
some  children  for  several  years  live  a  large  part  of  the  time  in  this 
free  imaginary  world,  which  they  people  with  toys,  animals,  and 
imaginary  companions  which  conform  to  the  will  of  their  creator. 

This  imaginary  world  may  seem  as  real  and  more  important 
to  the  child  than  the  world  of  solid  reality ;  hence  to  tell  what 
takes  place  in  it  is  more  pleasurable  than  to  describe  uninterest- 
ing realities.  He  tells  imaginary  experiences  as  naturally  as  an 
adult  tells  a  dream,  and  no  moral  significance  should  be  attached 
to  the  child's  stories  until  he  distinguishes  between  the  experiences 
of  the  two  worlds  and  learns  to  appreciate  the  desirability  of 
making  such  distinction  clear  in  all  that  he  tells. 

The  child's  images  are  often  more  vivid  (at  least  as  compared 
with  the  original  perceptions)  than  in  later  life.  Some  children 
have  difl&culty  in  distinguishing  images  from  percepts,  so  that 
their  images  are  in  reality  hallucinations.  It  is  probable  that 
after  definite  standards  of  "true  appearances"  have  been  es- 
tablished, images  usually  become  less  vivid  with  increased  age, 
except  at  about  fourteen  or  fifteen,  when  images  are  for  a  time 
probably  more  vivid. 


286  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD  STUDY 

One  reason  for  decreased  vividness  of  images  is  that  one  finds 
it  necessary  to  note  class  rather  than  individual  characteristics 
as  he  meets  with  many  varieties.  For  example,  lilies  or  turnips 
are  easily  pictured,  so  long  as  only  white  ones  are  known,  and 
officers  are  easily  imaged  so  long  as  only  a  few  large,  blue-coated 
policemen  have  been  seen ;  but  when  many  varieties  have  been 
met  with,  mental  images  are  a  less  satisfactory  means  of  thinking 
of  each  class  of  objects.  The  increase  in  vividness  of  images  at 
fourteen  or  fifteen  is  probably  correlated  with  physiological  and 
emotional  changes.  After  puberty,  images  become  more  or  less 
vivid,  according  to  the  nature  of  one's  mental  operations.  A 
student  of  an  abstract  subject  is  likely  to  image  less,  and  an 
artist  or  anatomist,  more  vividly  and  definitely. 

The  studies  of  Phillips  and  others  show  that  many  peculiar 
number,  form,  and  color  associations  originate  in  the  early  years, 
usually  before  entering  school. 

As  regards  accuracy  of  images,  the  results  depend  upon  interest 
and  practice.  Wolfe  found  that  younger  children  represented 
the  size  of  pieces  of  silver  money,  of  bills,  areas  of  circles,  and 
length  of  lines  in  inches,  more  accurately  than  either  the  fourth 
grade  or  the  university  students.  The  author's  own  studies, 
also,  indicated  that  there  is  little  difference  with  age  as  regards 
judgments  of  the  size  of  a  quart  measure,  distance  apart  of 
carriage  wheels,  number  of  wings  and  legs  of  a  fly,  etc.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  power  to  image  words,  as  shown  by  ability  to 
spell,  grows  with  age  during  school  life. 

As  to  kind  of  images  most  used,  observation  does  not  confirm 
the  a  priori  view  that  taste  and  smell  are  more  prominent  in 
the  mental  life  of  the  child  than  of  the  adult,  for  young  children 
discriminate  poorly  with  those  senses,  and  are  readily  drawn 
from  them  by  stimulating  the  eye  or  the  ear.  It  is  not  likely, 
therefore,  that  they  play  much  part  in  the  child's  mental  imagery, 
especially  as  his  chief  food,  milk,  has  little  taste  or  odor.    In 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         287 

general,  for  young  persons  making  much  use  of  visual  language, 
pictures,  maps,  and  diagrams,  the  changes  in  kind  of  imagery 
are  from  the  motor  and  auditory  to  the  visual.  According  to 
Smedley,  the  climax  of  ability  to  reproduce  auditory  numbers 
is  reached  between  thirteen  and  fourteen,  and  for  visual  numbers, 
between  seventeen  and  eighteen.  The  experience  which  the 
child  has  in  the  schoolroom  of  learning  a  visual  language,  learning 
visual  signs  for  numbers,  of  studying  things  by  means  of  pictures 
and  diagrams,  and  of  being  required  to  perform  mathematical 
and  other  operations  by  means  of  visual  images,  develops  the 
tendency  to  represent  everything  visually.  In  the  lower  grades 
the  child's  words  and  numbers  are  auditory  and  motor ;  but  as 
he  reaches  maturity,  visual  words  and  figures  become  more 
prominent,  until  finally  adults  can  often  understand  visual 
language  much  better  than  auditory. 

GROWTH  OF  CONSTRUCTIVE   IMAGINATION 

Constructive  imagination  depends  for  its  development  upon 
(i)  the  acquisition  of  mental  images,  (2)  attention,  or  power  of 
control  of  images,  and  (3)  mental  grasp. 

(i)  As  bricks  could  not  be  made  without  straw,  so  construc- 
tive imagination  cannot  act  without  mental  images. 

(2)  Power  of  attention,  or  control  of  mental  images,  is  no  less 
necessary.  Constructive  imagination  differs  from  reproductive 
imagination  or  memory,  inasmuch  as  images  are  not  combined 
as  they  were  in  the  original  experience ;  and  from  creative  im- 
agination, in  that  the  mode  of  combining  images  is  not  de- 
termined by  the  choice  or  the  habits  of  the  one  imaging,  but  by 
the  directions  of  another.  Considerable  power  of  attention  or 
voluntary  control,  therefore,  is  necessary.  In  listening  to  or 
reading  a  description  of  a  house,  for  example,  one  must  not  give 
it   color,    size,  position,  material,  etc.,  according  to  his  more 


288  FUNDAMENT.\LS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

usual  experience  or  his  owti  taste,  but  picture  each  according 
to  the  description  as  he  hears  or  reads  the  words. 

The  disposition  of  mental  images  is  difficult  to  the  child,  for 
much  the  same  reasons  as  is  accurate  control  of  movements. 
Yet  if  the  words  are  familiar,  the  subject  interesting,  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  ideas  in  accordance  ^^dth  the  child's  habits  of 
thinking,  and  the  rate  neither  too  fast  nor  too  slow,  the  words 
direct  his  attention  so  that  little  effort  on  his  part  is  necessary. 
This  experience  in  thus  having  his  attention  directed,  prepares 
him  to  direct  his  attention  according  to  the  words,  when  not  so 
interesting  or  so  well  arranged. 

(3)  Yet,  however  well  the  child's  attention  may  be  directed, 
his  mental  grasp  is  limited ;  hence,  complicated  descriptions, 
which  require  that  a  number  of  things  shall  be  kept  in  the  mind 
at  once,  in  order  that  they  may  be  properly  related,  are  beyond 
a  child's  powers.  For  these  reasons,  the  ability  of  children  to 
draw  or  do  things  according  to  direction  is  limited.  The  kinder- 
garten child  may  be  able  to  place  the  base  of  a  triangle  on  the 
top  side  of  a  square ;  but  if  there  are  several  figures  and  positions, 
he  is  unable  to  hold  all  the  images  in  mind  so  as  to  construct  the 
figure.  For  the  same  reason  primary  children  are  unable  to 
make  complicated  things,  comprehend  long  sentences,  appreciate 
stories  hav-ing  many  characters  and  incidents,  or  perform  prob- 
lems invohing  several  numbers  or  conditions. 

Since  mental  grasp  in  any  line  increases  as  ideas  in  that  par- 
ticular line  become  more  familiar,  the  power  of  constructive  im- 
agination may  increase  much  more  in  some  lines  than  in  others. 
A  child,  therefore,  who  can  readily  represent,  visually,  certain 
combinations  of  figures,  lines,  or  letters,  may  fail  in  the  less  famil- 
iar ones,  or  find  it  hard  to  represent  the  result  of  combining  two 
or  more  sounds,  and  hence  be  slow  in  word  building. 

The  constructive  imagination  is  called  into  play  by  stories, 
reading,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  history,  providing  they  are 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  289 

taught  as  they  should  be,  and  by  directions  such  as  are  given 
in  physical  exercises.  The  proper  understanding  of  lessons, 
and  the  development  of  accurate  constructive  imagination,  can- 
not be  brought  about  by  allowing  the  pupil  to  perceive  every 
object  and  combination  every  time,  but  by  having  them  partly 
imaged  and  partly  shown,  then  imaged  by  the  help  of  simple 
pictures,  diagrams,  or  gestures,  and  finally  by  means  of  words  only. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  CREATIVE   IMAGINATION 

The  essentials  of  creative  imagination,  aside  from  abundance 
of  images  from  past  experiences,  are  free  activity  and  the  im- 
pulse to  create  stirred  by  interest. 

(i)  Free  activity  means  either  spontaneous  activity  or  ac- 
tivity whose  excitant  is  so  subtle  that  it  is  not  discernible.  To  put 
it  in  physiological  terms,  nervous  impulses  tend  to  diffuse  them- 
selves to  parts  that  have  not  been  active,  or  to  pass  irregularly 
from  one  established  center  of  activity  to  another.  If  there  is 
a  strong  tendency  to  such  activity,  many  unusual  combinations 
of  mental  images  will  result,  a  large  portion  of  which  may  be 
merely  absurd  or  grotesque  (as  they  usually  are  in  dreams),  but 
some  of  which  are  likely  to  be  artistic  or  useful. 

Careful  training,  which  results  in  definite  ideas  and  particular 
ways  of  doing  things,  if  continued  for  a  long  time,  checks  the 
tendency  to  free  activity  and  may  destroy  the  power  of  creative 
imagination.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  untrained  men  like 
Edison  are  often  the  most  original.  Definite  training,  with  some 
imitation  of  various  models,  gives  a  good  basis  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  creative  imagination ;  but  the  training  and  the  imi- 
tation must  be  varied  and  not  too  long  continued  in  one  line, 
or  the  material  becomes  "set"  by  habit,  and  can  be  arranged 
only  in  the  customary  ways.  An  artist,  for  example,  who 
studies  and  imitates  one  school  of  painting  only,  for  years,  can 
never  become  an  original  painter. 


290 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 


(2)  The  impulse  to  create  cannot  be  directly  produced  by 
training,  since  it  comes  from  instinctive  tendencies  to  construct 
and  express,  stirred  by  various  emotions.  It  is  especially  strong 
when  new  experiences  are  met  or  new  instincts  come  into  prom- 
inence. One  of  the  first  emotions  to  stir  the  imagination  is 
often  that  of  fear,  especially  when  the  child  is  alone  in  the  dark. 
Later  the  more  aesthetic  emotions  stimulate  the  imagination. 
The  earliest  creations  are  likely  to  be  expressed  in  actions, 
especially  in  representative  or  dramatic  plays,  and  in  construc- 
tions, at  first  with  blocks,  then  in  making  toys,  forts,  and  machines. 
After  several  years  of  school  life,  oral  language,  music,  and  draw- 
ing, and  a  little  later,  written  language,  are  the  principal  media 
of  expression. 

The  subjects  with  which  creative  imagination  deals  are  various, 
but  are  evidently  determined  by  the  emotional  and  instinctive 
interests  prominent  at  different  ages.  Moreover,  new  experiences 
or  ideas  of  one  age  become  entirely  familiar  a  little  later,  and 
hence  do  not  excite  the  imagination  unless  they  are  brought  into 
new  relations.  It  is,  therefore,  impossible  to  say  just  what 
exercises  are  best  to  develop  the  creative  imagination  of  a  child 
or  group  of  children,  unless  one  knows  the  children ;  but  we  may 
say,  in  general,  that  whatever  stirs  the  emotions  and  excites  a 
desire  to  do  something  stimulates  imagination,  and  that  previous 
experiences  in  perceiving  good  models,  and  in  imitating,  express- 
ing, and  constructing,  furnish  the  conditions  for  its  effective  use. 
For  example,  to  tell  a  child  to  write  an  autobiography  of  an  oak 
tree  when  he  knows  little  about  how  the  oak  tree  grows,  and  less 
about  what  an  autobiography  is,  would  be  absurd ;  but  if  he  had 
recently  heard  several  biographies,  and  had  been  studjdng  about 
acorns  and  oaks,  it  is  not  improbable  that  he  would  have  both 
the  impulse  and  the  necessary  training  that  would  lead  him  to 
write  an  imaginative  autobiography.  His  previous  experience 
in  writing,  as  a  mechanical  act  and  as  a  means  of  expressing  his 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  i^t 

own  ideas,  and  his  interest  in  autobiographies  and  in  the  growth 
of  oaks,  together  with  the  special  motive  for  expression,  as,  for 
example,  the  desire  to  write  a  story  that  will  please  mamma  when 
it  is  taken  home,  will,  with  other  things  too  numerous  and  subtle 
to  enumerate,  influence  the  activity  of  creating  and  expressing. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  creative  imagination  is  more 
dependent  upon  individuality,  mood,  and  special  circumstances 
than  any  other  mental  activity  that  may  be  classed  as  intellec- 
tual, yet  there  is  nothing  in  mental  life  more  certainly  character- 
istic for  diflferent  ages  than  the  nature  of  the  fancies  as  new 
instincts  develop  and  emotional  interests  change.  The  boy's 
day  dreams  of  a  dog  and  a  cart  have  no  attraction  for  the  youth 
who  pictures  himself  rescuing  a  beautiful  maiden,  or  for  the 
business  man,  politician,  or  artist  who  dreams  of  his  plans  and 
successes.  Learoyd  and  Calkins,  who  secured  by  inquiry  an 
account  of  continued  stories  carried  on  in  the  minds  of  one 
hundred  and  seventy-five  persons,  found  that  in  the  younger 
years  such  stories  were  usually  concerned  with  fairies  and  mart}^:- 
doms,  in  late  childhood  and  youth  with  romance  and  adventure, 
and  in  maturer  years  with  practical  affairs. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  MEMORY 

As  already  shown,  mental  grasp  or  memory  span,  in  reproduc- 
ing impressions  just  received,  increases  with  age  in  a  marked 
degree.  The  increase  in  power  to  recall  after  an  interval  of  time, 
which  is  more  properly  called  memory,  is  much  less.  Jastrow 
found  that  university  students  remembered  only  i  or  2  per 
cent  more  words  after  an  interval  of  three  days  than  high  school 
students  five  years  younger.  The  author's  tests  showed  little 
difference  in  the  reproduction,  after  three  days,  of  words  seen  or 
heard  and  objects  shown,  by  children  from  the  third  grade 
up  to  college  students,  except  that  the  memory  of  the  older 
persons  was  more  voluntary  and  less  ready  and  spontaneous. 


292  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

Shaw  found  that  a  story  consisting  of  three  hundred  and  twenty- 
four  words,  and  nearly  half  as  many  distinct  facts,  was  repro- 
duced more  than  twice  as  fully  by  pupils  of  the  ninth  grade  as 
in  the  lowest  grade  tested,  and  as  well  or  better  than  by  high 
school  or  university  students.  He  counted  as  correct,  facts 
expressed  in  other  words  than  those  given  in  the  story.  The 
greater  difference  with  age  in  this  test,  compared  with  others,  is 
probably  because  it  involved  associations  of  ideas  instead  of 
mere  retention  of  impressions.  If  we  take  into  account  the 
slight  mental  grasp  of  the  children  and  the  length  of  time  re- 
quired for  them  to  express  what  they  remembered  in  writing, 
the  difference  in  memory  of  impressions  is  almost  nothing,  while 
in  memory  involving  associations  of  ideas  it  is  somewhat  greater. 
The  plasticity  of  the  child's  brain  is  probably  greater  than  that 
of  the  adult  and  the  retentiveness  nearly  as  great.  The  differ- 
ence in  the  memory  of  children  and  adults  is,  therefore,  a  differ- 
ence in  kind  rather  than  in  degree,  and  is  caused  largely  by 
experience.  Meuman  claims  that  retentiveness  is  greatest  at 
the  dawn  of  adolescence,  but  his  results  may  be  explained  by  the 
fact  that  there  is  better  concentration  on  impressions  at  this  age 
than  earlier,  and  less  abstraction  from  particulars  than  later. 
Nothing  that  can  be  used  as  a  memory  test  is  as  new  for  the  adult 
as  it  is  for  the  child.  The  adult  already  knows  a  part  of  what 
he  is  given  to  remember,  or,  in  other  words,  certain  brain  centers 
have  already  had  practice  in  reproducing  such  impressions.  In 
the  adult  brain  also,  where  many  centers  are  already  well  prac- 
ticed, new  impressions  readily  run  into  the  old  channels ;  hence 
impressions  are  easUy  classified,  and  their  centers  readily  awak- 
ened to  activity  again  because  of  their  connection  with  centers 
frequently  called  into  action.  Finally,  the  adult  mind  has  more 
power  of  voluntary  attention,  both  in  receiving  impressions  and 
in  trying  to  reproduce  them  by  holding  in  mind  some  idea  con- 
nected with  them.    As  a  consequence,  the  spontaneous  and  im- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         293 

classified  memories  of  adults  are  not  better  than  those  of  children, 
if  they  are  as  good,  while  their  voluntary  and  systematic  memories 
are  usually  better. 

The  above  differences  are  most  marked  between  children  and 
well-educated  adults,  while  adults  without  systematic  training 
differ  but  little  from  children  in  this  respect.  The  trained  mind 
has  much  greater  power  of  attention,  and  a  much  more  definite 
system  of  classified  ideas,  or,  in  physiological  terms,  more  dis- 
tinct centers  of  activity  and  paths  of  association.  Development 
of  memory,  is,  therefore,  largely  a  matter  of  training  in  habits  of 
attention  and  in  methods  of  classifying  impressions.  Most  im- 
provement in  memory  is  special,  certain  classes  of  things  only 
being  attended  to,  classified,  and  remembered,  while  others  are 
unnoticed,  and  consequently  not  remembered.  If  accounts  of 
discoveries  or  improvements  in  his  special  line  are  read,  re- 
spectively, by  a  historian,  a  botanist,  a  chemist,  a  psychologist, 
a  bicyclist,  a  civil  engineer,  or  a  doctor,  each  readily  attends  to, 
classifies,  and  remembers  the  facts  of  his  specialty;  but  all 
would  experience  great  difl&culty  if  they  exchanged  memory 
materials.  So  special  is  the  development  of  power  in  these 
directions,  that  one  man  may  remember  figures  indicating  dates 
readily,  but  utterly  fail  to  remember  a  list  of  prices  readily 
recalled  and  quoted  to  him  by  a  business  man.  One  mathema- 
tician who  could  repeat  in  order  as  high  as  fifty-two  figures, 
could  not  repeat  more  than  eight  or  nine  letters  given  orally  as 
were  the  figures. 

Memory  for  isolated  impressions,  and  in  fact  for  nearly  all 
things  that  are  largely  sensory,  reaches  its  climax  early  in  the 
teens.  The  plasticity  of  the  brain  probably  decreases  after 
puberty,  and  further  improvement  in  memory  is  special,  con- 
ceptional,  associative,  and  only  along  lines  in  which  one  has 
already  started ;  while  the  tendency,  and  in  part  the  ability, 
to  acquire  and  retain  facts  in  other  lines,  after  a  while  decreases, 


294  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

until  in  old  age  the  number  of  facts  acquired  each  year  is  very 
much  less  than  the  number  forgotten. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  CONCEPTS 

The  child  is  largely  engaged  in  sense  perception,  and  thus  his 
thought  processes  are  not  far  removed  or  easily  distinguished 
from  his  sense  activities.  The  sight  of  its  mother  may  produce 
in  a  child  of  six  months  some  expectation  of  auditory,  tactile,  and 
other  sensations  which  have  been  previously  experienced  in 
connection  with  seeing  her.  There  is,  however,  probably  no 
distinction  or  separate  representation  of  each  of  these  sensa- 
tions ;  yet  other  persons,  as  well  as  the  mother,  are  distinguished 
from  chairs,  beds,  and  other  inanimate  objects,  and  call  up  a 
different  class  of  images.  There  must  therefore  be  the  beginning 
of  the  concept  of  a  class  of  objects  which  we  know  as  persons, 
with  common  characteristics  differing  from  those  of  inanimate 
things. 

This  crude  form  of  concept,  much  like  that  gained  by  animals, 
may  be  formed  without  language.  This  must  have  been  the 
case  when  a  child,  less  than  a  year  old,  who  was  shown  a  bird, 
turned  and  looked  at  a  stuffed  bird  in  the  room,  and  when  another 
child,  a  little  over  a  year  old,  showed  surprise  and  fear  at  an 
envelope  which  seemed  to  move  of  itself,  which  was  contrary 
to  her  idea  of  that  class  of  objects.  A  child  can  sort  blocks, 
putting  those  of  a  color  together,  before  he  can  point  to,  or 
give  them  as  they  are  named.  In  the  case  of  M.  this  was  true 
for  a  year.  He  also  forms  class  ideas  before  he  uses  class  names. 
For  example,  men  are  distinguished  from  other  objects,  and 
from  women  and  children,  by  the  particular  name  "papa,"  but 
they  are  not  all  treated  as  that  particular  individual  is ;  hence 
papa  is  not  only  perceived  as  an  individual,  but  there  is  a  crude 
concept  of  the  class  to  which  he  belongs.  There  can  be  no 
doubt,  however,  that  language  is  an  aid  in  the  development  of 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         295 

thought,  and  a  necessary  factor  in  all  general  and  abstract  think- 
ing. There  is  nothing  in  general  and  abstract  concepts  such  as 
"organism"  or  ''color,"  by  which  they  can  be  recalled  or  indi- 
cated, except  a  sign  or  symbol  of  some  kind  which  can  be  asso- 
ciated with  the  common  element  in  the  variety  of  experiences 
giving  rise  to  the  concepts.  A  word  is  a  convenient  mode  of 
reacting  to  all  members  of  a  class  of  objects,  and  therefore  an 
important  part  of  the  concept,  as  well  as  a  means  of  recalling 
and  expressing  it. 

The  first  few  hundred  words  and  concepts  are  gotten  by 
children  through  direct  association  with  objects  and  experiences. 
These  first  words  help  in  gaining  other  concepts  and  words  as 
the  child  hears  them  in  remarks  and  stories^  and  in  answers  to 
his  questions.  Often  for  several  years  the  child's  questions 
show  that  he  is  learning  the  general  qualities  of  things  of  which 
he  is  trying  to  form  concepts,  e.g.,  "Is  iron  heavier  than  wood?" 
"Will  iron  burn?"  "Is  there  anything  stronger  than  iron?" 
"Where  do  we  get  iron?"  or  again,  "What  do  policemen  do?" 
"Where  do  they  live ?  "  "How  strong  is  a  policeman ? "  " Is  he 
stronger  than  you  ?  "  "  Do  they  always  have  a  club  ?  "  In  school, 
formal  definitions,  special  study,  and  reading  become  important 
means  of  acquiring  concepts  and  making  them  more  definite. 

Three  degrees  of  definiteness  of  concepts  may  be  named: 
(i)  One  in  which  a  class  of  objects  can  usually  be  distinguished 
from  other  classes  in  ordinary  experience,  but  whose  distinguish- 
ing qualities  have  not  been  picked  out  or  named,  as  when  a  child 
can  tell  dogs  and  cats  apart,  but  cannot  state  the  difference. 
(2)  A  stage  in  which  one  or  more  of  the  most  evident  characteris- 
tics which  distinguish  one  class  of  objects  from  other  classes, 
as,  dogs  "bark"  and  cats  "mew,"  may  be  stated.  (3)  Perfect 
concepts  in  which  all  the  distinguishing  characteristics  can  be 
named,  or,  in  other  words,  when  a  scientific  definition  can  be 
given,  as,  "A  parallelogram  is  a  plane  figure  whose  opposite 


296 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 


sides  are  parallel  and  equal."  A  young  child's  concepts  are  all 
of  the  first  degree,  yet  the  most  cultivated  man  probably  has 
some  of  the  first  type,  and  a  good  many  of  the  second;  while 
few  of  his  concepts  outside  of  the  Unes  to  which  he  has  given 
special  study  are  of  the  third  degree. 

The  difficult  task  of  finding  what  concepts  of  common  things, 
of  the  second  degree  of  definiteness,  are  possessed  by  children 
upon  entering  school,  has  been  attempted  in  Berlin,  Boston, 
and  other  places.  As  a  result  of  such  study.  Dr.  Hall  concludes : 
(i)  "There  is  next  to  nothing  of  pedagogic  value,  the  knowledge 
of  which  is  safe  to  assume,  at  the  outset  of  school  life.  (2)  The 
best  preparation  parents  can  give  their  children  for  good  school 
training  is  to  make  them  acquainted  with  natural  objects,  es- 
pecially with  sights  and  sounds  of  the  country.  (3)  Every 
teacher,  on  starting  with  a  new  class,  or  in  a  new  locality,  to 
make  sure  that  his  efforts  along  some  lines  are  not  utterly  lost, 
should  undertake  to  explore  carefully,  section  by  section,  chil- 
dren's minds  with  aU  the  tact  and  ingenuity  he  can  command 
and  acquire,  to  determine  exactly  what  is  already  known. 
(4)  The  concepts  that  are  most  common  in  the  children  of  a 
given  locality  are  the  earliest  to  be  acquired,  while  the  rarer 
ones  are  later."  Some  of  the  striking  per  cents  of  ignorance 
of  the  Boston  children  are  as  follows :  — 


Robin 60.5 

Pig 47.5 

Chicken 33.5 

Elm  tree 91.5 

Wrist 70.S 


Ankles      .... 

65.5 

Elbows     .... 

35.0 

Dew 

78.0 

Woods      .... 

53-5 

HiU 

28.C 

DEVELOPMENT  OF   REASONING 


The  beginning  of  practical  reasoning  is  found  in  the  instinc- 
tive tendency  to  do  under  similar  conditions  what  has  been  done 
previously  with  favorable  results,  and  to  refrain  from  doing  what 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         297 

has  brought  unfavorable  results.  A  child,  when  uncomfortable, 
instinctively  cries,  and  after  a  few  months,  if  a  continuation  and 
increase  of  crying  effort  has  always  been  followed  by  some  one's 
coming  to  the  rescue,  habit  establishes  this  method  of  obtain- 
ing relief.  Some  months  later  the  child  not  only  has  this  physio- 
logical tendency,  but  he  is  conscious  of  crying  as  one  method 
of  getting  things,  in  much  the  same  way  that  he  is  conscious  of 
reaching,  as  a  means  of  getting  objects.  A  year  or  two  later  the 
child  may  be  so  conscious  of  crying  as  a  means  which  has  secured 
desired  ends,  that  he  makes  the  cry  with  a  purpose,  instead  of 
merely  allowing  it  free  course  or  increasing  the  instinctive 
tendency  to  cry.  In  this  the  child's  reasoning  is  not  much 
beyond  that  of  an  intelligent  dog  which  lies  down,  rolls  over, 
or  "speaks"  for  a  piece  of  bread. 

In  all  the  child's  experiences  during  the  first  few  years,  as  he 
learns  to  reach  for  things,  keep  them  from  falling,  maintain  his 
own  equilibrium  in  various  positions,  walk,  climb,  fall  without 
getting  hurt,  avoid  the  stove,  use  a  spoon,  or  pile  up  blocks, 
instinct  and  habit  are  the  basis  of  the  practical  reason  which  is 
developing  in  a  remarkable  degree. 

On  the  conscious  side  the  child  is  guided  by  sensations,  per- 
cepts, and  images  of  particular  experiences  that  were  like  those 
now  occurring.  He  usually  knows  practically  that  things  have 
to  be  held  or  something  put  under  them  or  they  will  fall,  by  the 
middle  of  the  second  year ;  but  it  is  many  years  before  he  actually 
thinks  the  general  truth,  "unsupported  bodies  fall,"  though  he 
soon  has  representations  of  particular,  unsupported  bodies  fall- 
ing. Hence,  though  children  make  practical  inferences  at  an 
early  age,  it  is  often  a  long  time  before  they  analyze  and  gen- 
eralize so  as  to  reason  in  an  abstract  way. 

As  soon  as  children  begin  to  learn  language  they  are  implicitly 
generalizing,  classifjdng,  and  reasoning  as  they  apply  the  words 
to  new  objects.     Probably  not  until  between  three  and  four 


298  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

years  of  age  do  children  begin  to  consciously  and  explicitly  general- 
ize, and  then  the  generalization  consists,  at  first,  of  several  similar 
particulars,  as  the  following  remarks  of  a  little  girl  when  about 
three  and  a  half  years  old  indicate.  After  having  often  asked 
and  been  answered  as  to  where  various  things  came  from,  she 
asked,  "Where  did  I  come  from?"  and  was  answered,  "You 
grew."  Later  she  asked:  "Where  did  papa  come  from?" 
"Where  did  mamma  come  from?"  "Where  did  grandma  come 
from?"  Later  when  told  the  baby  had  two  legs,  she  asked: 
"How  many  legs  has  papa?"  "How  many  legs  has  mamma?" 
and  so  on  for  the  several  members  of  the  family.  At  this  time 
general  statements  did  not  satisfy  her.  When  told  she  did 
things  for  papa,  she  asked,  "What  do  I  do  for  you ? "  and  would 
not  be  satisfied  with  the  answer,  "Lots  of  things,"  till  a  particu- 
lar thing,  "You  get  the  paper  for  me,"  was  named.  A  few  days 
later  such  remarks  as  the  following  were  common:  "When  I 
get  big  I  will  go  to  the  gymnasium,  the  library,  the  normal 
school,  kindergarten  and  lots  of  places,'*  showing  that  her  ideas 
were  getting  slightly  broader  and  more  general  than  the  partic- 
ulars named. 

A  little  later  a  conscious  attempt  to  generalize  and  classify 
was  indicated  by  the  following:  "The  coffee  pot  won't  break, 
but  the  cup  will  break  and  the  saucer  will  break  and  the  sauce 
dish  will  break,"  etc.  The  crudeness  of  her  ideas,  however, 
was  shown  by  the  fact  that  when  questioned,  she  said  that  the 
silver  sugar  bowl  and  pitcher,  and  even  a  spoon  would  break, 
notwithstanding  she  had  often  dropped  spoons  without  their 
breaking.  Practically,  she  handled  cups  and  spoons  differently ; 
but  when  she  talked  of  them  consciously,  no  memory  of  different 
experiences  with  them  occurred  to  her  to  prevent  her  putting 
them  both  in  the  class  of  breakables. 

In  all  the  earlier  attempts  at  reasoning,  images  of  past  ex- 
periences compose  most  of  the  "  train  of  reasoning,"  and  personal 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  299 

actions  or  commands  to  self  are  transferred  to  others,  or  of 
others  to  self,  as  the  following  examples  illustrate.  To  papa, 
"You  eat  something  else  first,  then  you  can  have  some  cake." 
Having  been  told  that  she  could  have  something  when  it  was 
noon,  she  later  asked,  "Has  noon  gone?"  —  "No,  noon  is 
coming."  —  "Has  noon  footies?"  —  "No."  —  "How  does  the 
noon  come,  then?"  perhaps  thinking  vaguely  of  other  ways  of 
coming,  as  by  means  of  wheels.  It  was  explained  to  her  that  we 
called  it  noon  when  the  sun  got  up  high  so  we  had  to  look  up 
straight  to  see  it.  Several  times  after  that  on  cloudy  days  she 
said  at  dinner  that  it  was  not  noon,  for  she  could  not  see  the  sun, 
which  shows  how  largely  her  "thoughts"  consisted  of  definite 
sensations  and  images.  One  day  the  following  conversation 
between  her  and  her  father  occurred :  "When  I  get  big,  I  will 
pop  the  corn  and  you  won't  have  to  do  it,  will  you?"  —  "No." 
—  "You  will  be  a  Uttle  girl  then,  won't  you?"  — "No."  — 
"  Yes,  you  will."  She  had  previously  learned  that  she  would  get 
big,  and  that  papa  had  been  little,  and  she  had  often  changed 
places  with  others,  as,  "You  hide  now,  and  I'll  find  you,"  and 
so  she  probably  pictured  herself  as  a  big  man  popping  corn, 
and  papa  as  a  little  girl  standing  by  as  she  was  then. 

The  child  is  continually  gaining  new  truths  that  are  general 
in  the  sense  that  they  can  be  applied  to  a  number  of  particulars ; 
his  conceptions  are  increasing  in  number  and  passing  from  the 
first  to  the  second  stage  of  definiteness,  as  he  becomes  conscious 
of  common  characteristics  and  important  differences  in  various 
classes  of  objects ;  and  he  is  continually  trying  to  find  out  and 
apply  general  truths,  though  he  often  discovers  that  their 
application  is  more  hmited  than  he  expected,  as  when  he  goes  out 
in  the  rain  so  he  will  grow,  or  plants  money  or  a  ring  expecting 
it  to  produce  more. 

In  the  following  from  a  boy  of  four  who  has  an  unusual  tend- 
ency to  generalize,  the    induction  seemed    to  be  conscious: 


300  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

"All  things  that  will  run,  like  water  and  milk,  will  wet,  won't 
they,  papa?" 

The  child  gets  his  general  truths  (i)  from  practical  experiences, 
without  being  conscious  of  them  as  general  truths ;  (2)  from 
adults,  perhaps  in  answers  to  such  questions  as:  "Where  do 
apples  come  from?"  "What  are  you  putting  that  pie  in  the 
stove  for?"  "What  is  it  made  of?"  "What  makes  flowers 
grow?"  and  (3)  from  his  own  generalizations  and  inductions, 
though  these  are  often  more  a  recognition  of  similarity  of  par- 
ticulars than  genuine  abstract  generalizations.  In  other  words, 
he  goes  from  one  particular  to  another,  instead  of  reaching  a 
generaHzation  inductively,  then  applying  it  deductively  as  does 
the  logician.  For  example,  a  boy  of  five  who  saw  white  caps 
in  the  water  overflowing  a  meadow,  and  asked,  "Is  there  soap 
under  every  one  of  those  waves?"  evidently  remembered  other 
appearances  like  that,  produced  by  soap  in  water.  He  thought 
of  the  same  cause  in  this  case  without  going  through  any  such 
logical  course  of  reasoning  as  the  following :  (i)  (inductive) 
"I  have  observed  such  appearances  produced  in  water  by  soap 
and  by  nothing  else.  What  is  true  of  the  cases  I  have  observed 
is  true  of  all ;  therefore,  such  white  stuff  on  the  water  is  always 
produced  by  soap."  (2)  (deductive)  "White  stuff  on  the  water 
is  always  caused  by  soap;  that  water  has  white  stuff  on  it, 
therefore  there  must  be  soap  in  it." 

Whatever  the  source  of  the  general  truth  involved  in  a  child's 
reasoning,  he  is  likely  to  apply  it  not  only  to  the  class  of  objects 
or  conditions  to  which  it  belongs,  but  also  to  others,  and  many  of 
his  mistakes  in  reasoning  are  due  to  this  fact.  This  is  not  because 
his  generalizations  are  so  wide,  as  one  might  think,  but  because 
they  are  so  indefinite  and  undiscriminating,  as  are  also  the  con- 
cepts with  which  they  are  concerned ;  hence  as  soon  as  he  notes 
similarity  to  something  familiar,  and  pictures  what  was  true  of 
it,  he  expects  that  the  same  will  be  true  of  what  seems  like  it. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  301 

This  is  true  even  when  the  similarity  is  only  in  name.  For 
example,  a  little  girl  of  five,  who  had  borrowed  an  eraser  of  a 
young  lady  several  times,  was  told  that  a  plant  in  the  window 
was  a  rubber  plant,  when  she  quickly  exclaimed,  "Oh,  that's 
why  you  always  have  so  many  rubbers,  isn't  it?" 

In  other  instances  the  characteristic  to  which  the  truth  is 
attached  is  not  an  essential  one;  hence  the  truth  is  wrongly 
and  often  too  narrowly  applied,  as  when  a  boy  of  eight  said, 
"You  should  not  call  him  Mr.,  he  is  not  married  yet."  In 
reality  this  and  many  similar  mistakes  come  from  too  wide  a 
generalization  previously  made,  which  in  this  case  probably  was, 
women  who  are  married  change  their  title ;  hence  all  persons  do  so. 

The  numerous  mistakes  in  reasoning  which  a  child  makes  often 
lead  to  his  being  laughed  at,  and  this  tends  to  discourage  him 
somewhat  in  original  thinking,  and  to  make  him  rely  more  upon 
others  for  his  general  truths. 

When  he  enters  school  the  conditions  are  usually  unfavorable 
for  developing  his  power  and  tendency  to  reason.  Before  this, 
his  practical  reason  was  exercised  in  his  plays  and  experiences 
with  real  objects  and  situations,  and  his  conclusions  were  usually 
of  immediate  value  to  him.  Though  some  of  his  reasoning  had 
been  conscious,  and  some  of  his  thinking  animated  by  pure 
curiosity,  yet  much  of  it  had  been  influenced  by  practical  interest 
of  some  kind,  while  nearly  all  of  it  had  been  concerned  with 
persons,  things,  and  incidents  in  his  immediate  environment. 
In  school,  conscious  reasoning  is  usually  appealed  to,  and  there 
are  almost  no  opportunities  for  the  child  to  use  his  practical 
reason  in  doing  things.  The  school  studies,  especially  arith- 
metic, are  supposed  to  be  adapted  to  the  development  of  the 
child's  reason ;  but  the  appeal  is  almost  wholly  to  conscious 
reasoning,  which,  unaided  by  the  practical  reason  and  the  stim- 
ulus of  interest  in  the  conclusions  which  always  accompanies 
reasoning  in  acts  instead  of  in  thought,  is  not  very  vigorous. 


302  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

His  arithmetical  thinking  is  also  very  imperfect  because  it 
is  not  usually  appealed  to  sufficiently  through  the  senses  and 
through  images  of  definite  individual  experiences,  which,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  naturally  occupy  a  large  place  in  a  child's 
reasoning.  So  many  truths  are  presented  to  him,  and  they  are 
applied  so  often  without  the  results  or  conclusions  having  any 
bearing  upon  his  present  actions,  that  he  does  not  care  particularly 
what  the  truth  is,  or  how  it  is  applied,  providing  he  can  say  or 
do  what  will  satisfy  the  teacher.  In  short,  the  effect  of  school  life 
is  usually  inimical  to  the  activity  of  reasoning,  at  least  for  a  time. 

The  ordinary  child  in  the  public  school  exercises  his  practical 
reason  less  in  the  first  half-dozen  years  of  school  life  than  does 
the  ordinary  street  urchin.  Yet  the  schoolboy  acquires  a  great 
many  valuable  concepts  and  general  truths,  and  forms  habits  of 
orderly  analysis  and  synthesis  which  enable  him,  when  his 
reason  awakens  to  full  activity  again  (as  it  is  likely  to  do  in  his 
teens),  to  far  surpass  the  street  urchin,  not  only  in  more  abstract 
reasoning,  but,  with  some  practice,  in  the  reasoning  involved  in 
practical  affairs.  The  training  in  the  school  is  not,  therefore, 
valueless,  but  it  produces  a  break  in  the  development  of  reasoning 
which  is  sometimes  never  even  apparently  repaired. 

Naturally,  reasoning  is  first  instinctive,  sensory,  and  practical, 
then  conscious,  imaginative,  and  individual,  and  finally  abstract, 
analytic,  and  general.  The  school  unsuccessfully  seeks  to  develop 
the  last  form  of  reasoning  before  the  others,  which  are  a  necessary 
basis  for  it,  are  sufficiently  developed. 

After  about  twelve  years  of  age,  a  child's  interests  usually 
broaden  so  that  he  is  no  longer  almost  wholly  concerned  with 
his  own  affairs  and  with  particular  results,  but  begins  to  develop 
a  social  and  speculative  interest  in  groups  of  persons  and  classes 
of  objects  and  events.  By  this  time  the  child  has  also  acquired 
enough  concepts  and  general  truths,  together  with  the  power  of 
analyzing  and  discriminating  difference  and  likeness,  so  that  he 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         303 

now  has  the  ability  as  well  as  the  impulse  to  reason  in  a  general 
and  abstract  way  concerning  persons  in  history,  words  in  lan- 
guage, and  things  in  science. 

What  is  needed  more  than  anything  else  to  develop  the  reason- 
ing power  of  children  in  school  is  that  they  shall  have  more 
opportunity  to  work  out  for  themselves  methods  of  doing  things 
which  they  are  immediately  interested  in  doing,  and  more  practice 
in  discovering  the  results  of  particular  acts  and  conditions, 
before  they  are  expected  to  reason  in  an  abstract  way  about 
classes  of  things  in  which  they  have  no  immediate  or  practical 
interest.  It  is  also  important,  especially  in  arithmetic,  that  they 
shall  have  much  practice  in  applying  general  truths  to  various 
classes  of  problems,  without  anything  to  show  them  which  general 
truth  will  fit  each  particular  case.  In  other  words,  their  need  is 
not  more  general  truths,  but  more  practice  in  discerning  essential 
characteristics  and  applying  truths. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  If  similarity  in  mental  processes  helps  one  person  in  understanding 
another,  are  teachers  who  are  studying  some  new  subject  likely  to  succeed 
better  in  teaching  than  those  who  are  not?    Why? 

2.  Give  a  number  of  illustrations  of  special  training  which  does  or  does 
not  increase  general  mental  power. 

3.  As  a  means  of  showing  that  our  perceptions  become  definite  regarding 
familiar  things,  note  the  fact  that  a  figure  like  the  accompanying  one  may 
be  seen  in  two  or  three  definite  and  familiar  ways,  but 
not  in  any  intermediate  or  confused  way.  Note,  also, 
how  easy  it  is  to  hear  sounds  and  nonsense  syllables 
as  words.    Is  this  true  to  the  same  extent  of  children  ? 

4.  Give  illustrations  of  differences  in  the  discrimi- 
nation of  individuals,  and  indicate  how  far  they  may  be 
explained  by  special  knowledge  and  practice. 

5.  Test  first  or  second  grade  children  and  adults  by 
having  them  make  straight  Unes,  then  words,  as  many 
times  as  possible  in  a  minute,  and  note  the  difference  in  the  two  cases  in 
the  rate  of  children  and  adults  and  the  causes  of  the  difference. 


304  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

6.  Report  tests  and  observations  showing  difference  in  mental  grasp  of 
children  and  adults. 

7.  Give  illustrations  showing  that  differences  in  the  perceptive  power  of 
adults  may  be  as  great  as  are  to  be  found  between  children  and  adults. 

8.  Why  do  people  who  have  never  studied  drawing  usually  say  that  a 
circle  looks  the  same  in  all  positions?  Give  other  illustrations  of  the  ignor- 
ing of  variations  in  sensations,  in  perceiving  objects  as  the  same. 

9.  Have  students  experiment  and  report  on  weight  and  size  illusions. 

10.  Show  children  successively  sticks  of  the  following  length  in  inches 
I,  i|,  2,  25,  3,  3§,  4,  4,  4,  4,  and  see  if  they  get  the  suggestion,  that  each  line 
is  to  be  longer  than  each  of  the  preceding.  Show  a  series  of  lines  drawn  on 
paper,  of  the  above  lengths,  and  ask  the  children  to  point  to  one  three  inches 
long,  then  just  as  the  child  is  doing  so,  say,  "  Are  you  sure  you  are  right?  " 
Report  other  observations  and  experiments  showing  the  greater  suggesti- 
biUty  of  children  as  compared  with  adults. 

11.  Show  to  adults  for  a  moment  the  name  of  your  city  or  some  other 
familiar  word,  with  some  letters  omitted  and  similar  ones  substituted,  and 
see  if  familiarity  with  the  words  does  not  lead  to  error.  Report  other  obser- 
vations and  experiments  showing  that  knowledge  and  habit  may  lead  to  error. 

12.  To  get  an  idea  of  how  large  a  part  purpose  plays  in  perception,  look 
at  a  book  with  one  after  another  of  the  following  purposes :  to  know  the 
name  and  author,  to  know  regarding  the  capitalization  of  letters,  the  size 
of  letters,  spacing  and  design  on  the  back,  to  determine  the  quahty  of  the 
binding  as  to  material  and  color,  to  see  if  the  book  is  perfectly  new  and  clean, 
to  see  if  its  edge  is  smooth  and  straight  so  it  can  be  used  in  place  of  a  ruler,  to 
determine  its  size  in  inches,  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  the  paper.  Find  other 
illustrations  of  how  the  purpose  in  perceiving,  rather  than  the  mere  power 
of  discrimination,  determines  what  shall  be  perceived. 

13.  Is  there  any  relation  between  manual  training  and  sense  training? 
Explain  fully. 

14.  Give  illustrations  of  the  imaging  power  of  children. 

15.  Is  your  image  of  a  wooded  hiU  that  you  have  seen  many  times  at 
various  seasons  of  the  year  as  definite  and  vivid  as  some  landscapes  you  have 
seen  only  a  few  times?  Give  other  illustrations  showing  how  increased 
experience  may  lead  to  less  definiteness  and  vividness  of  images. 

16.  Report  from  experience,  observation,  or  reading,  instances  of  letters 
or  numbers,  which  always  call  up  images  of  certain  colors  or  forms. 

17.  Is  it  better  to  tell  children  of  the  second,  third,  or  fourth  grades  some- 
thing you  wish  them  to  remember,  or  to  have  them  read  it?    Why? 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         305 

18.  Try  with  children  and  adults  some  such  experiment  as  the  following. 
Say,  "  Make  a  dot  two  inches  from  the  top  of  the  page  and  one  inch  from  the 
left  edge,  then  from  it  draw  a  line  to  the  right  two  inches  long,  then  down- 
ward three  inches,  then  to  the  left  one  inch,  then  upward  an  inch,  then  to  the 
dot  first  made,"  and  see  how  well  they  follow  directions ;  or  say,  "  Think  of  a 
square  with  a  triangle  on  top  with  point  upward,  a  circle  underneath,  and 
an  oblong  on  each  side  with  ends  next  the  side  of  the  square." 

19.  Illustrate  from  school  work,  successes  or  failures  of  children  due  to 
good  or  poor  constructive  imagination. 

20.  What  is  the  effect  on  the  creative  imagination  of  always  telling 
children  not  only  what  to  do,  but  also  just  how  to  do  it  ? 

21.  Mention  a  number  of  exercises  that  you  think  would  give  good  train- 
ing to  the  creative  imagination,  in  which  you  recognize  a  stage  of  imitation 
and  practice,  and  another  stage  of  free  creation,  indicating  the  grade  to 
which  these  exercises  would  be  most  suitable. 

22.  Find  how  many  words  a  child  of  two  uses,  as  an  indication  of  the 
number  of  concepts  he  has. 

23.  Attem.pt  to  determine  what  concepts  of  common  things,  of  the  second 
degree  of  definiteness,  a  child  of  from  four  to  six  has. 

24.  It  wiU  be  interesting  for  students  to  try  to  gain  some  idea  of  how 
many  concepts  they  have  by  counting  the  words  familiar  to  them  in  a  Hst 
of  one  or  more  hundred  words  taken  by  chance  from  the  dictionary,  e.g., 
the  first  word  on  every  fourth  page,  and  estimating  their  total  vocabvdary. 

25.  Give  a  niunber  of  instances  of  chUdish  reasoning  from  observation 
or  reading,  and  explain  the  modes  of  reaching  a  conclusion  in  each  case. 

26.  Give  illustrations  of  work  in  school  studies,  so  planned  that  the  rea- 
soning may  be  simply  a  means  to  an  end  the  child  desires  to  reach. 

27.  Give  such  problems  as  these  to  children,  and  explain  why  they  make 
mistakes.  "  A  boy  walked  directly  east  three  miles,  then  directly  west 
three  mUes.  How  far  was  he  from  where  he  started?  "  "  If  a  stalk  of 
com  two  feet  high  grows  two  feet  in  the  month  of  July,  how  much  wiU  a 
peach  tree  three  feet  high  grow  in  the  same  time?  " 

28.  Algebra  may  be  described  as  arithmetic  generalized.  Why  is  it  better 
suited  for  older  pupils  than  arithmetic? 

29.  Have  children  find  out  what  you  are  thinking  of  by  asking  questions 
that  you  answer  by  yes  or  no.  Notice  how  many  of  their  questions  are 
particular  or  ignore  former  answers,  and  hence  show  lack  of  conceptional 
thought  and  reasoning. 

30.  Tell  a  story,  such  as  the  following,  with  many  contradictions  in  it, 

X 


3o6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

and  ask  chUdren  to  give  their  reasons  for  thinking  it  is  or  is  not  true.  Notice 
in  how  few  cases  they  put  parts  together  so  as  to  show  their  logical  contra- 
dictions. "  The  water  would  not  be  very  warm  if  it  was  winter  "  is  a  logical 
reason,  while  "  His  father  would  not  have  praised  him  "  is  merely  reasoning 
according  to  probabilities. 

A  Boy's  First  Fish 

One  winter  afternoon  a  boy  went  fishing  in  a  lake  a  short  distance  from  his 
home.  He  had  a  bent  pin  for  a  hook,  and  a  thread  for  a  line,  which  he 
fastened  to  a  good  strong  pole.  As  soon  as  he  threw  the  hook  in,  a  fish  took 
it  in  his  mouth  and  started  downstream.  The  boy  began  to  pull,  but  his 
foot  slipped  and  he  fell  into  the  river.  He  was  frightened  at  first,  but  when 
he  found  that  the  river  was  shallow  and  the  water  very  warm,  he  did  not 
care,  but  held  to  the  pole.  He  waded  to  the  shore  and  pulled  till  the  pole 
bent  and  almost  broke  before  he  could  draw  the  fish  out  of  the  lake.  When 
he  got  it  out  he  saw  that  it  was  about  eight  inches  long  and  he  was  very 
much  pleased.  He  tried  to  catch  more,  but  they  would  not  take  the  hook. 
His  hands  got  cold  in  the  wintry  wind,  so  he  started  home  with  the  fish. 
He  got  very  tired  carrying  the  heavy  fish  so  far,  but  forgot  all  about  it  when 
he  got  home,  and  his  papa  praised  him  for  holding  to  the  pole,  and  his 
mamma  said  the  fish  would  make  several  nice  meals  for  all  of  them. 

Note.  A  good  review  of  the  preceding  portion  of  this  book  may  be  had 
by  having  students  group  the  facts  they  have  learned  so  as  to  show  the  stage 
of  development  reached  at  one,  three,  six,  nine,  twelve,  fifteen,  and  eighteen 
and  by  observing  and  testing  one  or  more  children  of  the  age  chosen  for 
special  study. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  general  subject  of  intellectual  development  and  training,  see  besides 
psychologies,  Baldwin,  Vol.  I,  pp.  301-332;  Hinsdale,  Studies  in 
Education,  chaps,  ii  and  iii;  and  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  128-142; 
Judd,  chaps,  i  and  ii ;  Compayre,  Vol.  I,  chaps,  vi  and  vii,  Vol.  II ; 
Thorndike,  Human  Nature  Club,  chap,  xv;  Jr.  Ped.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp. 
60-65 ;  Thorndike  and  Woodworth,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  247- 
261,  384-395,  553-564 ;  Aiken,  "  Methods  of  Mind  Training  " ;  Allen, 
Jr.  Ped.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  237-254 ;  Bergstrom,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  V, 
PP-  356-369 ;  Swift,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  3-22 ;  Hugh,  Ped.  Sent., 
Vol.  V,  pp.  599-605 ;  Bryan  and  Harter,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  27- 
53,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  345-375 ;  Andrews,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  121- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         307 

149 ;  Johnson,  Yale  Sttdies,  VoL  VI,  pp.  51-103  ;  Swift,  Am.  Jr.  Psych., 
VoL  XIV,  pp.  201-251. 

On  the  senses  and  early  intellectual  development,  consult  Preyer,  Shinn, 
Tracy,  Moore. 

On  discrimination,  rate  of  mental  activity,  perception,  suggestion,  and  illu- 
sions, read  Kirkpatrick,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  563-577,  Vol.  VII, 
pp.  274-280 ;  parts  of  Gilbert,  Yale  Studies,  Vol.  II,  pp.  40-100 ;  Iowa 
Univ.  Studies,  Vol.  II,  pp.  1-84 ;  Christopher  and  Smedley's  Reports 
of  Child  Sttidy  Investigations  to  the  Chicago  Board  of  Education;  Judd, 
Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  27-39;  Small,  Ped.  Sent.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  176- 
220;  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  134-135;  Sidis,  Psychology  of  Sugges- 
tion; Bolton,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  537-548 ;  Jastrow,  Fact  and 
Fable  in  Psychology,  pp.  106-136,  275-295  ;  Binet,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII, 
pp.  610-616;  Pillsbury,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  315-393; 
Dressier,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  343-363 ;  Seashore,  Yale 
Studies,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  1-67  ;  Iowa  Studies,  Vol.  II,  pp.  1-64. 

On  mental  images,  see  Galton,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  XV,  p.  532  ;  Vol.  XVIII, 
p.  64,  or  consult  his  Human  Faculty;  Patrick,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol. 
XXXIX,  p.  761 ;  Kirkpatrick,  Science,  October,  1893 ;  Binet,  Pop. 
Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LI,  pp.  539-544;  Bryan,  N.  E.  A.,  1893,  pp.  779-781 ; 
Talbot,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  414-417  ;  Hall,  F.  H.,  Jr.  Ped., 
VoL  XIV,  pp.  214-223 ;  N.  E.  A.,  1897,  pp.  621-628 ;  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol. 

VI,  pp.  297-307;  Wylie,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  127-160;  Jastrow, 
Fact  and  Fable  in  Psychology,  pp.  337-370 ;  Philipps,  Am.  Jr.  Psych., 
Vol.  VIII,  pp.  506-527  ;  Wolfe,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  137-166. 

On  memory,  see  Colgrove,  especially  chap,  v;  Eldridge-Green,  Memory 
and  its  Cultivation,  Part  I,  chaps,  vii  and  viii  and  Part  II ;  Waldstein, 
The  Subconscious  Self;  Bolton,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  362-380 ; 
Shaw,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  61-78;  Kirkpatrick,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol. 
I,  pp.  602-609 ;  Jastrow,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  442-452 ;  Patrick,  Ed. 
Rev.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  463-474 ;  Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed.,  pp.  58-61 ;  Jacobs, 
Mind,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  75-82. 

On  associative,  creative,  conceptive,  and  reasoning  activities  of  children,  see 
Bolton  and  HaskeU,  Eld.  Rev.,  Vol.  XV,  pp.  474-499 ;  Barnes,  Studies 
in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  41-52 ;  Vol.  II,  pp.  43-61,  373-387  ;  Royce,  Psych. 
Rev.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  113-144 ;  Hall,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  139-173  ;  Lindley, 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  431-493 ;  Brown,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  358-396 ;  Gale,  Jr.  Ch.  and  Adoles.,  July,  1902,  pp.  149-174 ;  Han- 
cock, Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  261-268;  Learoyd,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol. 

VII,  pp.  86-90. 


3o8 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Later  References 
Books 


Boas 

Kirkpatrick  (i,  2,  3) 

Sully 

Bolton 

Magnus 

Swift  (3) 

Bonser 

Meuman 

Taimer 

Dum  villa 

Murray 

Thomdike  (10) 

Hall 

Sandiford 

Urwick 

Hunt 

Simpson 

Whipple 

Judd  (i  &  2) 

Sinclair 

Winch 

King(i) 

Stem 

Articles 

Bailey,  Thomas  P.    Mood   in   Monologue.    Ped.  Sem.,    1913,   Vol.  20, 

pp.   222-228. 
Brittain,  Horace  L.    A  Study  in  Imagination.     Ped.  Sem.,  1907,  Vol. 

14,  pp.  137-207. 
Bvunham,  W.  H.    Hygiene  of  Home  Study.    Ped.  Sem.,  1905,  Vol.  12,  pp. 

213-230. 
Chamberlain,  Alexander  F.  and  Mrs.      Studies  of  a  Child.    Ped.  Sem., 

1904,  Vol.  II,  pp.  264-291;    1905,  Vol.  12,  pp.  427-453;    1909,  Vol. 

16,  pp.  64-103. 
Chambers,  Will  G.    How  Words  Get  Meaning.      Ped.  Sem.,  1904,  Vol. 

II,  pp.  30-50. 
Colvin,  S.  S.,  and  Meyer,  J.  F.     Imaginative  Elements  in  the  Written 

Work  of  School  Children.     Ped.  Sem.,  1906,  Vol.  13,  pp.  84-93. 
Colvin,  S.  S.     The  Ideational  Types  of   School   Children.     Ped.  Sem., 

1909,  Vol.  16,  pp.  314-323- 
Day,  Leroy  C.    The  Child  God.    Ped.  Sem.,  1914,  Vol.  21,  pp.  309-320. 
Ellison,    L.     Children's    Capacity    for    Abstract  Thought  as  Shown  by 

Their  Use  of  Language  in  the  Definition  of  Abstract  Terms.     Am.  Jr. 

Psychol.,  1908,  Vol.   19,  pp.   253-260. 
Feingold,  Gustave  A.     Influence  of  Suggestion  on  Imagination.     Am.  Jr. 

Psychol.,  Vol.  24,  pp.  540-549- 
Fisher,  S.  Carolyn.    Arithmetic  and  Reasoning  in  Children.    Ped.  Sem., 

1912,  Vol.  19,  pp.  48-77- 
Folsom,  Joseph  K.    The  Scientific  Play  World  of  a  Child.    Ped.  Sem.,  191 5, 

Vol.  22,  pp.  161-182. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         309 

Griffin,  Joseph  T.     Practical  Illustrations  of  the  Law  of  Apperception. 

Ped.  Sem.,  191 2,  Vol.  19,  pp.  403-415. 
Hancock,  John  A.    The  Place  of  Reasoning  in   Teaching.     Ped.    Sem., 

191 1,  Vol.  18,  pp.  184-196. 
Libby,   Walter.    The  Contents  of    Children's  Minds.     Ped.   Sem.,  1910, 

Vol.  17,  pp.  242-272. 
McCrady,  L.  L.    The  Child  and  the  Imaginative  Life.    Atlantic    Mo., 

1907,  Vol.  100,  pp.  480-488. 
Peterson,  Harvey  A.     The  Generalizing  Ability  of  Children.    J.  Educal. 

Psychol.,  1914,  Vol.  5,  pp.  561-570. 
Terman,   L.    M.     Genius  and  Stupidity.    Ped.  Sem.,  1906,  Vol.  13,  pp. 

307-373- 
Triplett,  Norman.     Pedagogical   Arrests    and    Peculiarities.     Ped.  Sem., 

1905,  Vol.  12,  pp.  141-157. 
Woods,  Elizabeth  L.     Recent    Experiments    in  Committing  to  Memory. 

Ped.  Sem.,  1912,  Vol.  19,  pp.  250-279. 
Yamada,    Sasfichi.    A    Study    of    Questioning.    Ped.  Sem.,  1913,  Vol. 

20,  pp.  129-186. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
INDIVIDUALITY 

SIGNIFICANCE   OF   THE   TERM 

Whatever  has  a  separate  existence  so  that  it  cannot  be 
divided  or  fused  with  something  else,  without  losing  its  essential 
unity,  has  individuality.  A  pebble,  therefore,  has  some  indi- 
viduality, while  a  drop  of  water  has  none.  Again,  in  order  to 
have  individuality,  an  object  must  not  only  have  a  unitary  and 
separate  existence,  but  it  must  diflfer  from  every  other  unit. 
Coins,  as  they  roll  from  the  mint,  have  no  individuality,  for  each 
is  exactly  like  the  other.  The  products  of  machines  generally 
lack  individuality,  while  hand-made  goods  and  the  products 
of  organic  nature  all  possess  some  individuaUty.  No  two  leaves 
are  ever  found  exactly  alike. 

Difference  from  other  similar  units  is  one  essential  element 
in  individuality.  The  difference  may  be  slight  or  great,  and  in 
one  or  many  characteristics.  The  more  characteristics  a  thing 
possesses,  the  greater  are  the  chances  for  difference  or  individ- 
uality. A  mere  point  can  differ  from  another  point  in  posi- 
tion only,  while  a  line  may  differ  from  other  lines  in  position, 
direction,  and  length,  and  a  rectangle  from  other  rectangles  in 
position,  length,  breadth,  and  proportion  of  length  to  breadth. 
A  material  object  of  rectangular  form  may  also  differ  from  other 
rectangular  objects,  in  composition,  weight,  thickness,  color, 
and  smoothness.  Organic  objects  may  differ  in  all  these  ways 
and  also  in  origin,  manner  of  growth,  length  of  life,  etc.  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  the  most  complex  things  may  be  most 

310 


INDIVIDUALITY  311 

unlike ;  hence  man,  the  most  complex  of  animals,  has  the  greatest 
individuality  of  all.  This  is  true  of  the  body,  and  with  still 
more  truth  may  we  say,  ''every  human  soul  is  unique." 

Although  a  description  of  the  peculiarities  of  an  individual, 
as  compared  with  the  corresponding  qualities  in  others  of  his 
kind,  is  the  easiest  way  of  showing  his  individuality,  it  is  in  a  way 
superficial.  Individuality  depends  more  upon  harmony  and 
unity  of  qualities,  or  their  lack,  than  it  does  upon  the  degree  in 
which  each  quality  is  possessed,  as  compared  with  the  average 
person.  The  permanency  of  the  particular  organization  of  quali- 
ties is  also  another  measure  of  individuality.  In  the  latter 
respect  individuality  increases  with  age. 

BIOLOGICAL  VALUE   OF   INDIVIDUALITY 

Biologically,  the  significance  of  individuality  is  as  great  as 
that  of  heredity.  If  every  individual  of  a  new  generation  were 
exactly  like  its  parents,  evolution  would  be  impossible.  An 
almost  infinite  variety  of  individuals  must  be  produced  in  order 
that  the  fundamental  principle  of  evolution,  i.e.  natural  selection, 
may  act  effectively.  Probably  not  one  acorn  in  a  thousand 
sprouts  and  takes  root,  and  not  more  than  one  in  a  hundred  of 
those  that  do,  ever  reach  the  proportions  of  a  full-sized  oak. 
The  loss  of  buds  and  branches  in  each  individual  oak  is  almost 
equally  great.  In  the  animal  world  the  loss  is  scarcely  less, 
especially  in  the  lower  forms  of  animal  life.  If  all  grasshoppers* 
eggs  matured,  the  globe  would  be  buried  with  them  in  a  few 
years.  Which  of  these  vast  multitudes  of  young  creatures  of 
each  species  shall  survive,  seems  entirely  a  matter  of  chance, 
or,  in  other  words,  of  temporary  and  local  conditions ;  but  such 
is  not  the  case.  No  two  organisms,  from  the  tiniest  leaf  or  seed, 
and  the  smallest  bug,  to  the  most  complex  of  all  beings,  —  man, 
—  are  exactly  alike.  Despite  their  similarity  every  member  of 
each  species  has  some  individuality.    Those  having  character- 


312  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

istics  in  the  slightest  degree  more  suitable  to  the  constant  con- 
ditions of  life,  are  most  likely  to  be  preserved  to  produce  others 
with  some  of  the  same  characteristics. 

The  enormous  loss  of  life  in  each  new  generation  is  therefore 
not  wholly  useless,  for  those  animals  that  survive  have  the 
characteristics  which  fit  them  to  live  successfully  in  the  environ- 
ment into  which  they  were  born,  while  those  that  perished  were 
in  the  main  less  favorably  endowed.  The  continued  existence 
of  the  species,  so  long  as  conditions  remain  the  same,  is  thus 
assured.  If  conditions  change,  some  individuals  are  likely  to 
survive  and  produce  descendants,  whereas,  if  all  were  alike,  all 
would  perish.  The  selection,  for  survival,  of  those  best  suited 
to  the  new  conditions,  results  in  further  evolution  of  the  species 
and  its  more  complete  adaptation  to  the  new  life  conditions. 

To  the  human  race,  individuality  is  even  more  important, 
for  not  only  does  it  favor  physical  evolution,  but  also  social 
progress.  If  there  were  no  persons  differing  from  the  common 
mass  of  mankind,  to  serve  as  leaders  and  models  for  imitation, 
changes  in  customs  and  modes  of  thinking  would  be  impossible. 
Progress  would  come  to  an  eternal  standstill. 

COMMONALITY  AND   INDIVIDUALITY 

Every  person,  as  Shylock  eloquently  shows,  has  the  essential 
characteristics  of  a  common  humanity  as  well  as  individual 
peculiarities.  Physically,  all  have  body,  limbs,  head,  and  in- 
ternal organs;  but  the  absolute  and  relative  size  of  each  are 
never  the  same  in  two  individuals. 

In  height,  men  vary  from  three  feet  to  eight  feet,  and  in  weight, 
from  fifty  to  five  hundred  pounds.  The  average  child  at  birth 
weighs  about  seven  pounds,  but  an  individual  child  may  weigh 
an)rwhere  from  two  to  twenty  pounds.  Although  about  seventy 
per  cent  of  the  children  in  a  first  grade  may  be  comfortable 
in  the  average  seat  for  that  grade,  some  individuals  will  require 


INDIVIDUALITY  313 

much  smaller  seats,  and  others,  seats  as  large  as  are  usually 
required  in  a  sixth-grade  room.  The  average  pulse  beat  of  men 
is  seventy,  but  it  may  be  forty  or  over  a  hundred.  Differences 
equally  great  are  found  in  every  organ  and  process,  and  in  the 
relation  of  parts  and  processes  to  each  other,  e.g.  a  man  six  feet 
high  may  have  a  shorter  body  than  one  only  five  and  a  half  feet 
in  height.  Indeed,  it  is  difference  in  proportion  of  parts  rather 
than  in  absolute  size  that  enables  us  to  distinguish  one  individual 
from  another. 

Even  the  very  elements  of  which  bone  and  muscle  are  com- 
posed differ  in  different  persons;  hence  the  combination  of 
these  elements  into  organs  of  different  sizes  must  give  rise  to 
still  greater  differences  in  physiological  processes,  temperaments, 
movements,  sensations,  thoughts,  emotions,  and  actions. 

Shoe  dealers,  doctors,  teachers,  and  preachers  would  find  their 
tasks  much  simplified  (though  rather  dull  and  mechanical)  if 
there  were  complete  uniformity.  Society  would  be  quite  demo- 
cratic. There  would  be  no  idiots  and  no  geniuses,  no  criminals 
and  no  philanthropists,  no  radicals  and  no  conservatives.  Meth- 
ods of  work  and  modes  of  worship  would  soon  alike  be  mechan- 
ically regulated  and  continued  without  change. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  a  country  where  there  is  great  individu- 
ality and  no  uniformity,  governments  exist  only  by  force.  Com- 
mon processes,  standards  and  laws  are  impossible ;  there  is  no 
peace  except  that  of  tyranny  and  subjection,  and  no  permanency 
beyond  the  life  of  the  dominant  individual.  A  certain  amount 
of  uniformity  is  therefore  necessary  to  the  stability  and  peace 
of  the  social  organism,  while  individuality  is  equally  necessary 
if  it  is  to  be  progressive. 

Looking  at  the  matter  simply  from  the  standpoint  of  individ- 
ual happiness,  the  person  who  is  like  his  fellows  in  nearly  all 
respects  is  in  harmony  with  his  social  environment,  and  so  far 
as  that  is  concerned,  is  at  least  negatively  happy.    The  person 


314  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

who  differs  greatly  from  his  fellows  in  knowledge,  temperament, 
habits,  and  ideals  is  shut  off  from  any  real  companionship,  be- 
cause there  are  none  of  his  kind  with  whom  to  associate.  He 
is  irritated  by  their  monotonous  lives,  and  they,  by  his  eccen- 
tricities; hence  the  man  of  genius  is  often  miserable.  The 
person  who  differs  from  his  fellows  by  inferiority  is  even  more 
unfortunate  if  he  realizes  it.  Perhaps  there  is  least  comfort 
for  the  man  who  is  neither  superior  nor  inferior,  but  simply  dif- 
ferent. To  be  happy,  a  man  must  have  much  in  common  with 
his  fellows;  and  to  be  useful,  he  must  have  also  something 
which  they  have  not.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  not  only  does 
the  stability  and  improvement  of  the  social  organism  depend 
upon  the  presence  of  both  common  characteristics  and  individual 
peculiarities,  but  so  also  does  the  welfare  and  happiness  of  the 
inclividuals  composing  the  social  organism. 

FACTORS  PRODUCING  COMMONALITY  AND  INDIVIDUALITY 

Heredity  favors  uniformity  in  proportion  to  the  oldness  and 
pureness  of  the  ancestral  line,  while  mixed  parentage  results 
in  greater  differences  in  the  offspring.  In  no  case,  however, 
are  all  the  children  of  the  same  parents  exactly  alike,  even  at 
birth.  How  far  these  differences  are  due  to  germ  heredity,  and 
how  far  to  prenatal  influences,  we  do  not  know;  but  the  fact 
remains  that  every  person  has  in  some  degree  native  or  con- 
genital individuaKty. 

Experience,  training,  and  teaching,  in  so  far  as  they  are 
uniform,  favor  commonality.  Where  the  climate,  industries, 
customs,  laws,  religion,  and  sources  of  knowledge  as  the  schools 
and  the  press,  are  the  same,  the  people  will  inevitably  be  more 
nearly  of  a  single  type. 

Though  there  are  natural  and  social  influences  tending  to 
produce  commonality,  yet  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  individuahty 
is  found  in  every  home,  community,  and  nation  because  (i) 


INDIVIDUALITY  315 

congenital  differences  cause  the  individuals  to  react  in  various 
ways  to  the  common  external  influences ;  (2)  differences  in  treat- 
ment result  from  these  congenital  peculiarities  {e.g.  a  bright 
child  is  asked  to  do  things  a  dull  one  is  not,  and  a  quarrelsome 
child  is  treated  differently  from  an  even-tempered  one  by  his 
companions),  and  (3)  chance  influences  (such  as  being  the 
youngest  or  oldest  in  the  family,  and  special  accidents  or  events 
that  affect  one  child  and  not  another,  or  that  occur  at  a  different 
stage  of  development)  give  a  different  form  to  each  character. 
Slight  differences  may  produce,  ultimately,  enormous  individual 
variations.  The  truth:  *'To  him  that  hath  shall  be  given,"  is 
of  wide  application.  A  uniform  environment  makes  for  com- 
monality, but  on  account  of  individual  differences  the  various 
influences  are  in  some  cases  almost  nil  in  their  effects  and  very 
impressive  in  others ;  hence  under  the  same  treatment  children 
may  increase  and  confirm  marked  individual  peculiarities. 

TIME   OF  GREATEST  INDIVIDUALITY 

It  is  hard  to  say  at  what  age  individuality  is  greatest.  In 
adults  there  is  much  more  of  the  harmony  and  unity  of  char- 
acteristics that  make  an  individual  a  person,  instead  of  a  mass 
of  partly  related  phenomena,  than  in  the  case  of  an  infant.  The 
individuality  is  also  more  fixed,  so  that  it  is  less  modifiable  by 
surroundings.  In  children,  individuality  is  less  because  the  child's 
nature  is  simpler  and  many  of  his  peculiarities  are  transient. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  child's  individuality  is  greater  in  some 
ways  because  he  has  not  been  subjected  to  the  many  years  of 
social  training  and  education  that  have  tended  to  make  adults 
all  alike.  The  new  instincts  which  develop  as  the  years  pass, 
increase  the  possibility  of  individual  differences  in  a  way  that 
partially  balances  the  influences  tending  to  uniformity. 

Measurements  and  tests  show  greater  individual  differences 
for  young  children,  and  for  those  just  entering  their  teens,  than 


3l6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

for  other  ages.  This  is  largely  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
rapid  changes  are  occurring  at  these  ages,  and  by  the  fact  that 
such  changes  begin  earlier  in  some  children  than  in  others. 
About  three  times  as  many  children  are  of  the  mean  weight  at 
eight  years  of  age  as  at  fifteen ;  while  the  difference  in  weight 
between  the  largest  and  the  smallest  boy  at  fifteen  is  about 
twice  as  great  as  between  the  largest  and  smallest  boy  at  eight. 
The  changes  being  slow  for  the  years  just  before  and  after  eight, 
a  difference  of  a  year  or  two  in  the  time  of  entering  upon  a  new 
stage  of  development  makes  only  slight  individual  difference 
in  children  of  that  age,  while  at  about  fifteen  the  changes  are  so 
great  that  the  difference  between  one  who  is  a  year  late  and  one 
who  is  a  year  early  in  his  development  is  very  marked. 

Physiological  studies  show  also  that  adolescents  differ  greatly 
from  each  other  in  thought,  feeling,  and  action;  and  history 
testifies  that  many  inventions  and  innovations  have  been  made 
by  adolescents.  We  therefore  conclude  that,  everything  con- 
sidered, individuality  in  the  sense  of  variations  from  the  average 
is  greatest  during  the  adolescent  period.  Some  persons  who 
resist  common  influences,  and  continue  to  develop  their  own 
peculiarities,  show  the  greatest  individuahty  in  maturity  or 
old  age ;  but  the  majority  become  more  and  more  like  their 
fellows  in  general  society,  and  like  their  co-workers  in  their 
occupation,  but  more  fixed  in  the  phases  of  individuality  that 
they  retain. 

GENERAL    AND    PARTICULAR    TRUTHS    REGARDING    CHILDREN 

The  anatomist,  physiologist,  psychologist,  and  morahst  make 
many  generalizations  as  to  what  is  true  of  the  average  man ;  but 
no  individual  will  be  found  who  is  in  all  particulars  an  average 
man.  The  generalizations  are  not  false  or  useless,  but  eminently 
true  and  valuable,  since  they  give  a  mean  or  standard  to  which 
the  great  majority  of  men  approximately  conform.    Where  there 


INDIVIDUALITY  317 

is  one  man  between  seven  and  eight  feet  high,  there  are  hundreds 
of  thousands  between  five  and  six  feet.  It  is  thus  practical  to 
construct  doors,  chairs,  and  beds  to  suit  the  majority  of  men. 
The  variations  in  proportion  of  parts  are  greater,  yet  the  majority 
of  men  can  be  fairly  well  fitted  with  ready-made  clothing.  A 
perfect  fit,  however,  requires  individual  measurement,  and  in 
a  few  cases  such  measurement  is  necessary  in  order  for  the  clothes 
to  be  worn  at  all. 

Standards  regarding  physical  processes  are  of  great  value  in 
medicine  as  indices  of  physical  health ;  yet  physicians  find  it 
necessary  to  determine  the  normal  standards  of  individuals  in 
order  to  properly  diagnose  and  prescribe  successfully. 

Generalizations  regarding  the  mental  power  and  the  moral 
worth  of  the  average  man  are  of  immense  value  in  practical  and 
social  life,  yet  individuahty  must  be  recognized  in  explaining 
or  appealing  to  men,  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  manufacturing 
furniture  and  clothing,  or  in  prescribing  food,  medicine,  and  ex- 
ercise. 

Scientific  students  of  children  are  trying  to  make  generaliza- 
tions in  the  realms  of  anatomy,  physiology,  psychology,  and  morals 
as  to  the  characteristics  most  prominent  at  different  ages.  Such 
generalizations,  when  carefully  made,  are  valuable  as  standards 
of  comparison.  They  are  not,  however,  models  to  which  indi- 
viduals should  be  made  to  conform,  any  more  than  men  should 
be  made  over  to  fit  coats,  chairs,  or  the  size  of  pills.  On  the 
contrary,  the  results  of  child-study  investigations  have  always 
emphasized  the  greatness  of  individual  difference  in  children 
and  the  need  of  recognizing  it.  For  example,  though  carefully 
prepared  tables  show  that  the  average  boy  of  eight  is  forty- 
seven  inches  high,  yet  individuals  of  that  age  are  found  fifty- 
five  inches  in  height,  which  is  equal  to  that  of  the  average 
twelve-year-old ;  and  others,  only  thirty-five  inches,  or  less 
than  the  height  of   the  average  three-year-old.    Tests  show 


3i8  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

that  the  average  boy  of  the  sixth  grade  can  work  so  many  ex- 
amples of  a  certain  kind  in  two  minutes.  This  is  a  valuable 
standard  for  comparing  the  arithmetical  attainments  of  children, 
but  no  reason  whatever  for  trying  to  bring  all  children  to  that 
standard. 

After  the  sixth  year,  the  fifteenth  year  is  for  the  average  boy 
the  year  of  most  rapid  growth;  but  individual  boys  begin  to 
grow  more  rapidly  as  early  as  the  twelfth  year,  and  others  as 
late  as  the  nineteenth.  Again,  the  average  boy  grows  about 
three  inches  in  his  fifteenth  year;  but  individuals  have  been 
known  to  grow  thirteen  inches  in  that  year.  Tests  of  rate  of 
movement,  strength,  endurance,  sensitiveness,  discrimination, 
and  memory  show  increase  during  school  age  of  from  two  to  five 
fold ;  yet  nearly  as  great  differences  are  foimd  between  the  poor- 
est and  the  best  individuals  of  each  age.  In  nearly  all  tests  of 
children  of  different  school  grades,  even  where  the  change  with 
grade  is  marked  and  fairly  regular,  one  usually  finds  nearly  as 
wide  a  divergence  between  children  in  the  same  grade  as  between 
the  averages  for  the  lowest  and  the  highest  grades. 

Children  usually  learn  to  walk  when  a  httle  over  a  year  old, 
but  some  begin  as  early  as  seven  months,  and  others  not  until 
nearly  two  years  of  age.  At  two  years,  most  children  use  three 
or  four  hundred  words ;  but  some  do  not  use  a  dozen,  and  others, 
more  than  a  thousand.  Most  children  show  marked  mental 
changes  soon  after  entering  the  teens ;  but  some  show  none,  and 
others  go  through  such  changes  long  before  or  long  after  that 
time.  Children  who  do  well  in  their  school  work  (according 
to  Porter  and  Hastings)  average  larger  than  those  who  do  poorly ; 
but  a  dozen  exceptions  to  this  generalization  could  probably 
be  found  in  almost  every  school.  Fewer  exceptions  are  found 
if  the  relation  of  breathing  capacity  to  weight  is  considered. 
The  time  element  makes  all  generalizations  in  child  study  more 
difficult  than  in  mere  anatomy,  physiology,  psychology,  and  ethics, 


INDIVIDUALITY  319 

because  the  age  at  which  changes  take  place  varies  greatly  in 
different  children ;  hence  those  who  may,  when  mature,  be  much 
alike,  are  often  quite  different  at  certain  periods  of  life,  because 
one  has  entered  upon  a  new  stage  of  development  much  earlier 
than  the  other. 

NECESSITY  OF  RECOGNIZING  INDIVIDUALITY  IN  CHILDREN 

Whether  the  teacher  wishes  to  promote  individuaUty  or  uni- 
formity, she  must  (if  she  is  to  be  in  the  highest  degree  successful) 
recognize  individuality.  Children  are  different  to  begin  with ; 
hence  they  react  differently  to  the  same  treatment.  In  order 
to  get  them  to  react  in  the  same  way,  so  as  to  have  uniform 
development,  they  must  be  appealed  to  differently.  If  a  uni- 
form standard  is  to  be  approached,  certain  characteristics  must 
be  fostered  in  some  and  suppressed  in  others.  If  the  same 
knowledge  and  skill  are  to  be  obtained,  different  individuals 
must  be  allowed  different  periods  of  time  for  doing  a  given 
amount  of  work,  because  experiments  show  that  the  niunber 
of  units  of  work  that  can  be  accomplished  by  some  members  of 
a  class  in  a  given  time  is  from  two  to  four  times  as  great  as  can 
be  accomplished  by  other  students  of  the  same  class,  and  this 
even  in  a  senior  class  of  a  high  school  supposed  to  be  well  graded. 
If  all  are  to  forin  habits  of  effort  and  industry,  different  require- 
ments must  therefore  be  made  of  different  children;  otherwise 
some  will  be  forming  habits  of  idleness,  while  others  are  over- 
doing or  forming  habits  of  "skimming."  Difference  in  knowl- 
edge, as  well  as  in  natural  powers  and  tendencies,  must  be  recog- 
nized, or  one  will  be  confused  where  another  is  enlightened. 

It  is  clear  from  the  preceding  that  if  one  wishes  uniform  re- 
sults from  educational  processes,  he  must  recognize  individuality. 
Much  more,  then,  if  one  aims  to  develop  individuality,  must 
he  recognize  it  at  every  step  in  the  process.  If,  as  in  the  highest 
ideals  of  education,  it  is  desired  to  make  each  individual  like  his 


320  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

fellows  in  all  ways  necessary  to  association  with  them,  and  dif- 
ferent from  them  in  all  ways  which  his  natural  tendencies  and 
position  in  life  demand  shall  be  different,  there  is  double  reason 
for  recognizing  individuality. 

When  we  say  individuality  must  be  recognized,  we  mean  the 
same,  only  with  greater  emphasis,  as  when  we  say  each  person 
must  be  measured  in  order  that  his  clothing  may  be  made  to  fit. 
We  know,  however,  that  the  people  of  a  city  can  be  better  fitted 
from  a  stock  of  ready-made  clothing,  which  has  been  cut  accord- 
ing to  general  principles  governing  the  size  and  proportion  of 
parts  of  the  majority  of  men  and  boys,  than  they  can  be  by  a 
poor  tailor  who  measures  and  tries  to  fit  each  one  individually. 
He  is  only  an  artisan,  and  notwithstanding  his  opportunity  for 
individual  measurement  his  results  are  inferior  to  those  of  other 
artisans  who  make  no  measurements  of  individuals,  but  work 
according  to  general  principles  under  the  direction  of  experts. 
The  best  results  can  only  be  obtained  by  the  expert  tailor  who 
is  able  to  measure  the  individual  accurately,  apply  general  prin- 
ciples correctly,  and  exercise  his  judgment  in  making  each  gar- 
ment a  work  of  art.  In  a  similar  way,  we  may  say  that  children 
may  be  taught  more  successfully  in  the  mass,  according  to  gen- 
eral principles  under  the  supervision  of  an  expert,  than  they  can 
be  taught  individually  by  a  poor  teacher  who  has  little  knowledge 
of  general  principles  of  education,  less  ability  in  reading  in- 
dividual children,  and  no  skill  in  dealing  with  them.  The  best 
results  can  be  reached,  however,  only  when  the  teacher  is  an 
artist  and  able  to  fit  the  work  to  individual  needs,  so  that  every 
child  may  be  molded  according  to  the  same  general  type  as  other 
children,  and  developed  so  as  to  bring  out  the  highest  and  best 
of  his  individual  characteristics. 


INDIVIDUALITY  321 

HOW    COMMONALITY    AKD    INDIVIDUALITY    MAY    BE    DEVELOPED 

To  develop  the  common  characteristics  necessary  to  the  main- 
tenance of  proper  social  relations,  there  must  be  some  uniformity 
as  to  what  is  done  and  learned.  All  must  at  least  learn  a  common 
language,  and  some  of  the  fundamental  customs  of  the  nation. 
Many  other  things  in  our  present  course  of  study  are  more  or 
less  necessary  and  desirable,  but  none  are  so  essential  as  means 
of  communication  and  common  traditions.  A  certain  amount 
of  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  geography,  etc.,  is  also  desirable 
as  a  common  basis  of  understanding. 

To  preserve  both  commonality  and  individuality,  the  require- 
ments in  a  few  subjects  of  a  course  of  study  should  be  set  at 
rather  a  low  minimum,  with  no  maximum  and  no  time  limit. 
In  other  words,  most  children  may  be  expected  to  reach  approxi- 
mately certain  minimum  standards  of  knowledge  and  skill  in 
fundamentals,  but  not  necessarily  in  exactly  the  same  time.  To 
promote  individuality,  a  child  must  be  allowed  and  encouraged 
to  go  beyond  the  minimum  in  any  line,  and  given  opportunity 
for  becoming  interested  and  for  working  in  other  lines.  In  other 
words,  instead  of  being  held  to  ineffective  attempts  to  make 
up  deficiencies,  he  should  be  helped  in  advancing  in  the  lines 
for  which  he  has  the  greatest  capacity. 

TYPES   OF  INDIVIDUALITY 

Since  every  one  comes  in  contact  with  thousands  of  individuals 
of  varying  similarity  and  difference,  it  would  be  very  convenient 
if  one  could  classify  them  into  a  few  types,  and  then  deal  with 
the  individuals  according  to  the  types  to  which  they  belong. 
The  classification  most  commonly  used  has  been  that  of  tem- 
perament, but  unfortunately  (or  perhaps  fortunately)  few  in- 
dividuals exhibit  exactly  the  characteristics  ascribed  to  any  one 
of  the  several  temperaments.     Some  of  the  characteristics  of 


322  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

several  temperaments  are  shown  by  one  individual,  and  none 
of  them  in  the  same  degree  by  any  two.  In  many  cases  the 
best  method  of  treatment  may  be  more  readily  and  accurately 
determined  by  studying  the  individual  than  by  classifying  him 
as  belonging  to  a  certain  type. 

The  varieties  of  individuality  are  so  great  that  psychology 
and  child  study  can  never  tell  teachers  what  they  would  most 
like  to  know  —  just  how  to  deal  with  individual  pupils.  Science 
in  its  very  nature  is  general ;  its  goal  is  the  discovery  and  state- 
ment of  general  rather  than  individual  truths.  Scientific  knowl- 
edge is  not,  however,  useless  to  the  teacher ;  the  more  she  knows 
of  how  most  human  beings  act  and  develop,  and  of  the  character- 
istics most  common  at  each  stage  of  development,  the  more 
quickly  and  correctly  will  she  be  able  to  determine  what  is  the 
best  treatment  for  an  individual  child.  Experience  in  dealing 
with  other  children  more  or  less  similar,  will  also  be  helpful  in 
determining  what  to  do  with  the  child  in  question.  The  reading 
of  how  other  children  have  been  dealt  with  and  the  study  of 
biographies  and  of  novels  that  are  true  to  life,  may  in  part  take 
the  place  of  actual  experience  with  children.  From  such  ex- 
perience and  study  one  may  form  in  his  own  mind  a  more  prac- 
tical classification  of  children  than  he  can  by  trying  to  under- 
stand the  types  described  by  another. 

Children  are  usually  best  described  and  managed  according 
to  prominent  characteristics,  rather  than  according  to  groups 
of  qualities  indicated  by  type  names.  It  is  much  more  important 
to  the  teacher  to  know  whether  a  boy  is  slow  or  quick  in  his 
mental  operations,  than  it  is  to  know  whether  he  has  all  the 
characteristics  of  the  phlegmatic  or  of  the  nervous  temperament. 
The  accuracy  and  ease  with  which  a  pupil  works,  depend,  more 
than  anything  else,  upon  the  rate  at  which  he  is  required  to 
perform  each  operation.  Often  a  pupil  can  work  best  and  most 
easily  at  twice  the  rate  that  is  best  suited  to  his  classmate.    On 


INDIVIDUALITY  323 

the  other  hand,  the  slow  pupil  may  be  able  to  maintain  a  steady, 
prolonged  activity  imder  direction,  for  a  length  of  time  utterly 
impossible  to  the  pupil  with  the  more  agile  mind.  Experiments 
by  Davis  indicate  that  persons  who  are  quick  in  their  reactions 
gain  more  in  muscular  power  by  light  than  by  heavy  practice, 
while  those  who  are  slow  gain  most  by  heavy  practice.  Ex- 
periments on  fatigue  also  indicate  that  quickly  reacting  indi- 
viduals show  more  extreme  and  sudden  variations  in  fatigue 
than  those  who  are  slow.  Observation  also  indicates  that  slow 
individuals  often  improve  under  stimulus  and  direction,  while 
the  quicker  pupil  may  be  so  excited  and  disturbed  by  stimulation 
and  close  supervision  that  he  makes  many  mistakes  and  wastes 
much  energy. 

Of  course  there  are  large  numbers  of  children  who  are  neither 
especially  quick  nor  slow,  and  who  are  therefore  most  helped 
by  an  intermediate  mode  of  treatment.  The  final  test  of  the 
suitability  of  any  method  of  treatment  for  a  child  is  the  effect 
which  it  is  observed  to  have  upon  him ;  hence  no  study  of  gen- 
eralizations and  types  of  individuality  can  ever  render  unneces- 
sary the  observation  of  individuals. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1 .  State  some  examples  of  individuality  that  you  have  observed  in  plants 
or  animals. 

2.  If  plants  of  the  same  variety  were  all  alike,  would  it  be  possible  to 
improve  the  variety?    Why? 

3.  Give  not  less  than  six  examples  of  extreme  variation  of  some  kind  in 
people.  Are  any  of  these  persons  treated  differently  because  of  their 
pecvdiarity? 

4.  Discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  uniformity  and  individ- 
uality in  ability,  beliefs,  and  customs  in  a  community,  so  far  as  they  may 
be  produced  by  education  and  law. 

5.  Give  illustrations  of  persons  who  were  miserable  because  of  their 
difference  from  other  persons,  of  those  who  were  useless  for  lack  of  it,  and 


324  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

of  those  interesting  or  influential  because  of  it.    Do  leaders  have  much, 
little,  or  a  medium  individuality? 

6.  Give  illustrations  of  individuality  due  to  heredity,  to  acceleration  or 
retardation  in  development,  to  surroundings,  to  chance  circumstances,  to 
congenital  pecvdiarity.  Is  it  of  any  value  to  the  teacher  to  know  the  causes 
of  individuality?    Why? 

Have  the  people  of  the  United  States  more  or  less  individuality  than  those 
of  other  nations?  Why?  Mention  the  various  factors  tending  to  make 
them  have  more  or  less  individuality  than  the  people  of  England. 

7.  As  regards  permanency  or  degree  of  individuahty,  what  would  be 
true  of  the  following:  a  radical?  a  conservative?  a  man  set  in  his  way?  a 
genius?  an  imbecile?  a  saint?  a  criminal?  an  athlete?  an  invalid?  a  giant? 
a  dwarf? 

8.  Do  the  following  promote  individuality  or  commonality:  churches? 
lodges?  public  lectures?  theaters?  factories?  shops  of  the  Roycroft  type? 
Name  other  things  which  produce  uniformity  or  individuality. 

9.  In  what  respects  is  the  individuality  of  a  successful  reformer  like 
that  of  a  crank  or  a  martyr,  and  in  what  respects  different  ? 

10.  At  what  age  did  you  feel  yourself  most  different  from  other  people? 
If  one  goes  into  new  social  surroundings,  is  he  hkely  to  feel  his  individuality 
more  or  less?    Why? 

11.  Give  illustrations  showing  the  value  of  knowledge  of  certain  general 
truths  regarding  the  characteristics  of  children  of  each  age  and  grade,  and 
also  of  the  value  of  knowledge  of  individual  peculiarities.  Which  do  you 
think  is  of  more  advantage  to  a  teacher,  to  know  many  general  truths  re- 
garding children,  or  to  be  able  to  readily  note  and  understand  individual 
peculiarities  ? 

12.  If  a  class  of  children  are  to  be  prepared  for  the  same  examination, 
why  should  individuality  be  recognized  ?     Illustrate. 

13.  In  preparing  a  lesson,  should  a  teacher  think  more  of  the  common 
characteristics  of  a  class  or  of  their  individual  peculiarities?  During  the 
lesson  which  should  she  think  more  of  ?  How  can  she  best  meet  both  class 
and  individual  needs? 

14.  What  is  the  general  effect  upon  individuality  of  allowing  children  to 
choose  for  themselves  a  good  deal?    Illustrate. 

15.  Describe  some  of  the  ways  in  which  you  have  known  individuality 
to  be  recognized  and  promoted  in  school. 


INDIVIDUALITY 


S^S 


Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  nature  and  importance  of  individuality,  see  Bailey,  Psych.  Rev., 
Vol.  VI,  pp.  649-651 ;  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  250-256,  370-375; 
Stanley,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  80-84 ;  Howerth,  Jr.  Fed.,  Vol.  XIV, 
pp.  311-324;  Doan,  Jr.  Fed.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  13-33  ;  Ribot,  Psychology 
of  the  Emotions,  pp.  380-404. 

On  tests  and  types  of  individuality,  Wissler,  Monograph  Suppl.  to  Psych. 
Rev.,  No.  16,  pp.  1-62 ;  Jr.  Fed.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  203-213 ;  Sharp,  Am. 
Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  328-391 ;  Kirkpatrick,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  VII, 
pp.  274-280;  Kelley,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  345-372;  Bagley,  Am. 
Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  193-205 ;  Bohannon,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IV,  pp. 
3-60,  Vol.  V,  pp.  475-496 ;  F.  Burk,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  481- 
484 ;  Baldwin,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1 21-124 ;  Beebe,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol. 
Ill,  pp.  14-25;  Burnham,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  204-225;  Davis, 
YcUe  Studies,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  64-108 ;  Ladd,  Physiol.  Psych.,  chap,  xviii. 

For  studies  of  individuals,  Stableton,  Diary  of  a  Western  Schoolmaster,  or  a 
series  of  articles  in  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII ;  Carmin,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IX, 
pp.  106-117  ;  Galton,  "  History  of  Twins,"  in  Human  Faculty,  or  as 
reprinted  in  Teachers  College  Record,  May,  1901,  or  a  number  of  sketches 
of  individual  children  in  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  together  with  such  works  as 
Smith's  Evolution  of  Dodd. 

On  individual  teaching,  see  Search,  An  Ideal  School,  chap,  viii;  iV.  E.  A., 
1895,  pp.  398-406;  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  154-170;  Kermedy,  Jr. 
Fed.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  130-139;  N.  E.  A.,  1901,  pp.  295-305;  Green- 
wood, Principles  of  Education  Practically  Applied,  pp.  173-192. 


Later   References 

Books 

Bolton 

Holmes,  A. 

Smith 

Eastman 

Hohnes,  W.  H. 

Stableton 

Fisher 

Jastrow  (2) 

Swift 

Galton 

Kirkpatrick  (3) 

Thomdike  (5  &  7) 

Groszmann 

Morgan,  B. 

Healy 

Partridge 

Articles 

Buttenwieser, 

Eben  C. 

The  Obstinate  Child. 

Ped.  Sem.,  191 1,  Vol.  i 

PP-  31S-328. 

326  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Chambers,  W.  G.    Individual  Differences  in  Grammar  Grade  Children,    J. 

Educal.  Psych.,  1910,  Vol.  i,  pp.  61-75. 
Gillingham,   Anna.    One   Child's   Struggle   in   the  Preparation  for  Life. 

Ped.  Sem.,  1913,  Vol.  20,  pp.  343-359- 
Goodhart,  S.  P.    The  Exceptional  Child.    Addr.  and  Proc.  N.  E.  A., 

1910,  pp.  886-892. 
MacLear,  Martha.    The  Fact  of  Personality  in  the  Development  of  a 

Typical  Child.    Ped.  Sem.,  1913,  Vol.  20,  pp.  93-97. 
MacDougall,  R.    The  Social  Basis  of  IndividuaUty.    Am.  Jr.  Sociology, 

191 2,    Vol.  18,  pp.  1-20.    Pyle,  W.  H.    A  Psychological  Study  of 

Bright  and  Dull  Pupils.     J.   Educal.   Psychol.,   1915,  Vol.   6,  pp. 

151-156. 
Stem,  W.    The  Supernormal  Child.    J.  Educal.  Psychol.,  191 1,  Vol.  2, 

pp.  143-148,  181-190. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
CHILD  STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS 

USE    OF   TRUTHS    KNOWN   AND   ACQUIRABLE 

All  the  teacher's  knowledge  of  physiology  and  psychology 
and  of  the  characteristics  usually  prominent  at  different  ages 
of  childhood  may  be  of  use  in  knowing  what  to  assume  as  true, 
what  observations  to  make,  and  how  to  judge  the  significance 
of  the  facts  discovered  in  studying  children.  In  a  similar  way 
the  less  systematic  knowledge  of  human  nature  and  of  children 
gained  by  association  with  them  at  different  ages  will  naturally 
be  used  in  getting  acquainted  with  the  special  characteristics  of 
a  school  as  a  whole  and  of  the  individual  children  composing  it. 

A  teacher  may  in  an  indirect  way  make  a  valuable  study  of 
a  school  before  she  sees  it.  Knowing  the  grade  she  is  to  teach, 
she  can  infer  the  age  of  the  majority  of  the  children.  From  her 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  child  study,  she  will  know  what 
characteristics  are  likely  to  be  prominent  at  that  age.  This 
will  give  her  some  idea  of  the  school,  wherever  it  is  located. 

If  the  children  are  nearly  all  of  one  or  two  nationalities,  this 
will  tell  her  something  about  them.  Physical  and  social  heredity 
will  inevitably  endow  them  with  the  principal  characteristics 
of  the  nation  to  which  they  belong.  Any  knowledge,  therefore, 
the  teacher  may  have  or  acquire  of  these  nationahties  will  be 
helpful  to  her  in  imderstanding  the  children. 

A  knowledge  of  the  community,  its  occupations,  social  organi- 
zations, and  amusements  will  also  be  helpful.  The  imitative 
instinct  makes  it  absolutely  certain  that  the  children  will  absorb 

327 


328  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

many  phases  of  the  social  life  by  which  they  are  surrounded. 
It  is  almost  equally  sure  that  they  will  know  something  of  the 
objects  of  nature  and  art  about  them,  and  little  of  those  of  other 
places  unless  they  have  traveled,  or  have  read  with  unusual 
intelligence.  The  fundamental  apperceptive  knowledge  possessed 
by  the  children  may  therefore  be  determined  by  studying  their 
natural  as  well  as  their  social  surroundings. 

To  know  something  of  the  school  knowledge  and  training  pos- 
sessed by  the  pupils,  the  course  of  study  and  methods  of  teaching 
in  the  city  or  district  may  be  studied.  With  some  allowances 
for  forgetting,  pretty  shrewd  guesses  as  to  what  the  children 
will  know,  can  then  be  made. 

The  schoolroom,  with  all  its  possibilities  for  heating,  lighting, 
ventilating,  seating,  illustrating,  and  decorating,  should  be 
studied  as  an  important  factor  in  determining  what  may  be  done 
with  the  school  that  is  to  inhabit  it.  Books  and  apparatus 
should  also  be  considered  in  this  connection. 

OBSERVATION   AND   INCIDENTAL  STUDY 

When  the  children  appear  and  begin  their  work,  the  teacher 
may  study  them  in  a  direct  way  by  observations,  and  thus  sup- 
plement and  correct  with  specific  facts  her  previous  conclusions. 
The  majority  of  the  children  may  prove  to  be  either  young  or 
old  for  their  grade,  and  their  development  may  be  greater  or 
less  than  that  usual  for  their  ages,  though  the  teacher's  knowl- 
edge of  their  social  surroundings  should  have  prepared  her  for 
such  variations  as  the  latter.  Their  knowledge  of  natural  sur- 
roundings and  of  school  studies,  when  tested  by  reviews  and  ques- 
tions, may  also  prove  greater  or  less  than  was  anticipated. 

In  regulating  the  school  the  teacher  assumes  that  certain 
forms  of  control  are  necessary  and  that  certain  motives  and  in- 
fluences may  best  be  used  in  preserving  order  and  in  securing 
good  work,  but  she  should  observe  closely  how  the  children  re- 


CHILD  STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS  329 

spond  as  a  group  and  as  individuals  to  directions,  example,  sug- 
gestions, reproofs,  rewards,  public  sentiment,  personal  approval 
or  group  disapproval  and  individual  group  competition,  curios- 
ity, practical  needs,  play  opportunities,  etc.,  and  modify  her 
actions  accordingly,  preserving  her  ideals,  but  finding  the  most 
eflfective  means  of  realizing  them. 

She  should  not  confine  her  study  of  children  to  the  school- 
room or  even  to  the  playground,  but  should  seek  to  know  as  much 
as  possible  of  the  character  of  their  activities  outside  of  school. 
These  facts  may  often  be  obtained  indirectly  through  conver- 
sation with  the  children  and  through  papers  written  by  them. 

Language  exercises  calling  for  information  along  these  lines 
may  be  made  very  interesting  to  the  children  and  valuable  to 
the  teacher  who  wishes  her  teaching  to  correct  and  supplement 
the  incidental  education  given  by  the  community.  Such  topics 
as  the  following,  assigned  at  not  too  frequent  intervals,  will  give 
the  teacher  a  good  idea  of  the  activities  and  influences  affecting 
the  children  when  not  in  school.  "What  I  like  best  to  read, 
and  why,"  "What  I  did  last  Saturday"  (written  on  Monday), 
"What  I  did  during  vacation"  (written  just  after  vacation), 
"What  I  am  going  to  do  this  vacation"  (just  before  vacation), 
"What  I  do  on  school  days  outside  of  school  hours,"  "The 
games  that  I  like  to  play  best,  and  why,"  "The  best  time  I  ever 
had,"  "What  I  am  going  to  do  when  grown,  and  why,"  "Five 
things  that  are  bad  and  wrong,  and  why,"  "Five  things  that 
are  good  and  right,  and  why,"  "Some  good  acts  and  some  bad 
acts  that  I  have  seen  this  week,"  "My  experience  in  getting, 
keeping,  and  spending  money,"  "What  I  would  do  with  it  if  I 
received  fifty  cents  a  day  for  a  month,"  "Which  I  would  rather 
have,  five  dollars  to-day,  fifty  dollars  a  year  from  to-day,  or  five 
hundred  dollars  in  ten  years,  and  why,"  "The  kind  of  a  playmate 
or  chum  I  like  best,"  "Pets  that  I  have  had  and  that  I  wish  to 
have." 


330  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

When  a  teacher  first  begins  her  work  in  a  school,  the  children 
are  slow  in  understanding  her  questions  and  directions,  and  it 
is  generally  recognized  that  it  takes  time  for  teacher  and  pupils 
to  get  used  to  each  other.  This  "getting  used  to  each  other" 
means  not  merely  greater  familiarity,  but  the  formation  of 
habits  by  the  pupils,  in  accordance  with  the  teacher's  habits 
of  doing  things  and  of  expecting  them  to  be  done.  Many  of 
these  are  very  obvious,  such  as  signals  for  leaving  the  room, 
asking  questions,  position  assimied  in  reading,  writing,  and  put- 
ting away  or  getting  books  and  material,  answering  questions, 
etc.,  and  it  probably  is  well  for  the  teacher  to  consciously  direct 
the  formation  of  such  of  these  formal  school  habits  as  she  thinks 
necessary,  in  order  that  they  may  be  quickly  established  and 
require  little  subsequent  attention.  Direction  in  forming  these 
habits  should  consist  not  so  much  in  description  of  the  thing  to 
be  done  as  of  practice  in  doing  it  at  the  proper  time. 

The  pupils'  modes  of  observing  and  thinking  will  be  afifected 
by  the  way  in  which  the  teacher  questions,  analyzes,  and  outlines, 
their  feelings  and  sentiments  influenced  by  those  she  holds  and 
expresses,  consciously  and  unconsciously,  and  their  attentive- 
ness,  carefulness,  and  persistency  determined  to  some  extent  by 
her  example  and  her  requirements.  Every  teacher  should  note 
the  habits  of  thinking,  feeling,  and  working,  common  to  the 
school,  that  have  been  formed  by  the  social  environment  and  by 
previous  school  experiences  and  conditions,  and  should  consciously 
strive  to  correct  the  undesirable  ones  and  develop  the  good  ones. 

In  attempting  to  break  habits  already  formed,  the  teacher 
should  remember  that  a  habit  is  a  tendency  to  do  a  certain 
thing  under  certain  conditions,  and  hence  that  a  change  in  the 
conditions  giving  rise  to  a  habit  will  often  change  the  habit. 
It  is  also  much  easier  to  learn  to  do  something  else  under  the 
conditions  calling  forth  a  habit  than  to  refrain  from  doing  any- 
thing, or,  in  other  words,  it  is  easier  to  change  a  habit  than  to 


CHILD  STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS  331 

break  it.  It  is  therefore  often  wisest  to  say  nothing  about  un- 
desirable habits,  but  to  change  the  conditions  under  which  they 
appear,  or  to  set  the  children  to  doing  something  which  will 
erelong  take  the  place  of  the  undesirable  habit.  For  example, 
children  who  are  led  to  become  interested  in  hearing  or  doing 
something  do  not  need  to  be  told  not  to  gaze  around  the  room  or 
out  of  doors ;  and  those  who  are  learning  to  observe  or  care  for 
animals  will  not  long  continue  to  practice  cruelty  toward  them. 

A  teacher  should  be  careful  that  the  children  do  not  get  into 
the  habit  of  holding  her,  instead  of  themselves,  responsible  for 
order.  Very  often  they  wait  for  a  look  or  a  word  which  has 
become  a  customary  signal  for  them  as  individuals  to  do  certain 
things.  They  are  like  a  little  three-year-old  girl,  who,  after 
being  reminded  many  times  to  stop  before  drinking  all  of  her 
milk,  said,  when  not  so  reminded,  "Mamma,  why  don't  you  tell 
me  to  stop?" 

In  directing  the  formation  of  habits  in  which  improvement 
with  practice  is  desired,  as  in  learning  to  write  and  draw,  the 
teacher  should  be  satisfied  with  the  work  as  long  as  it  shows 
improvement,  but  should  be  very  careful  when  improvement 
stops,  because  one  of  two  undesirable  results  is  likely  to  appear : 
either  the  habit  with  its  imperfect  execution  becomes  fixed  by 
repetition,  so  that  after  a  time  it  is  almost  impossible  to  change 
it ;  or  else  when  the  volitional  effort  to  do  good  work  decreases, 
the  execution  begins  to  revert  back  to  a  less  developed  stage  at 
which  it  may  then  become  fixed.  It  should  also  be  remembered 
that  doing  a  thing  well  under  one  set  of  conditions  does  not 
necessarily  mean  that  it  will  be  done  equally  well  under  others ; 
hence  a  pupil  who  writes  well  when  writing  in  a  copy  book,  may 
write  very  poorly  when  trying  to  express  his  ideas  in  a  language 
lesson.  The  teacher  should,  therefore,  see  that  habits  are  per- 
fected under  the  conditions  likely  to  exist  when  they  are  to  be 
used. 


332  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

After  a  teacher  becomes  quite  familiar  with  her  school,  she 
still  needs  to  study  it  to  know  what  to  do  in  special  circumstances. 
She  must  be  quick  to  discover  signs  of  nervousness,  restlessness, 
fatigue,  or  loss  of  interest ;  thorough  in  searching  for  the  causes, 
whether  they  be  in  the  physical  conditions  of  the  room  or  in 
something  that  has  been  done  either  in  or  out  of  school ;  and 
fertile  in  expedients  for  removing  or  counteracting  undesirable 
influences. 

If  the  cause  of  the  difficulty  should  be  in  herself,  she  should 
be  no  less  persistent  in  removing  it.  It  is  more  important  to 
the  school  that  the  teacher  shall  keep  herself  in  good  health  and 
free  from  fatigue,  nervousness,  and  worry  than  it  is  that  she  shall 
correct  papers  or  even  teach  in  the  best  possible  manner. 

If  she  is  careless  and  unsystematic  in  her  work,  no  amount 
of  talking  about  neatness  and  order  will  make  the  children 
careful  and  orderly.  If  she  calls,  in  a  loud  and  irritated  manner, 
for  them  to  be  quiet,  she  is  reaUy  giving  them  a  suggestion  to 
become  more  noisy.  If  she  is  afraid  the  children  will  not  obey 
her,  the  idea  of  disobeying  is  at  once  suggested  to  them  by  her 
voice  and  manner.  Since  natural  signs  have  greater  suggestive 
force  for  children  than  words,  it  is  not  strange  that  they  are  more 
influenced  by  the  actions,  manner,  and  tone  of  voice  of  the  teacher 
than  by  what  she  says. 

The  effects  upon  the  school  of  suggestion  and  imitation  among 
the  pupils  themselves  are  also  frequently  very  marked.  The 
teacher  should,  therefore,  study  closely  the  social  relations  of 
her  pupils,  observing  who  seem  to  be  leaders  in  the  public  senti- 
ment of  the  school,  and  who  are  merely  imitators  and  followers. 
Then  she  should  make  a  special  effort  to  understand  the  leaders 
so  as  to  influence  them,  and  in  that  way  to  direct  the  sentiment 
and  actions  of  the  school.  She  should  arrange  the  seating  of 
pupils  also,  so  that  there  will  be  as  little  temptation  as  possible 
to  visiting  or  other  disturbance.    All  cases  of  chumming  and 


CHILD  STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS  333 

rivalry  in  individuals  or  of  groups  should  be  noted.  In  many 
schools  it  will  be  found  that  there  are  one  or  more  societies 
formed  by  the  children  themselves,  which  not  infrequently  have 
special  badges  or  passwords,  and  sometimes  an  extensive  secret 
language.  The  teacher  will  find  it  interesting  and  profitable 
to  become  familiar  with  all  these  social  relations  of  the  little 
society  of  which  she  is  the  leader,  and  to  note  how  the  children 
are  being  influenced  by  them.  She  should  seek  to  use,  rather 
than  to  suppress,  such  social  activities.  Individual  rivalries 
may  not  be  ignored,  but  should  not  be  encouraged ;  while  rivalry 
between  groups  may  be  profitably  encouraged  when  it  leads  to 
better  cooperation  of  the  members  of  each  group,  and  is  good- 
natured. 

STUDY  AND   TREATMENT  OF  INDIVIDUAL  CHILDREN 

After  the  teacher  has  become  so  well  acquainted  with  her 
school  that  she  knows  how  to  regulate  it,  and  conduct  the  classes 
to  the  best  advantage  of  the  majority  of  the  children,  she  should 
seek  to  know  more  of  the  exceptional  and  peculiar  children  whose 
needs  are  not  being  fully  met,  and  to  find  ways  of  meeting  their 
needs  without  interfering  with  the  general  school  and  class 
work.  In  doing  this,  she  should  never  assent  for  one  moment 
to  the  idea  that  all  the  children  must  be  treated  exactly  alike. 
Everything  she  does  should  be  for  the  good  of  each  child,  whether 
it  be  the  assignment  of  a  long  or  a  short  lesson,  or  the  giving  of 
a  punishment  or  a  reward.  What  will  be  the  best  training  or  the 
most  effective  corrective  for  one  may  not  be  for  another ;  hence 
it  is  her  duty  to  treat  each  pupil  in  the  way  that  will  cause  him 
to  improve  most  and  on  that  basis  justify  her  conduct. 

In  her  study  of  the  school  as  a  whole,  the  teacher  will  have 
noticed  children  who  show  marked  variations  from  the  average 
in  many  ways.  There  are  undoubtedly  causes  for  each  pecuUar- 
ity,  and  the  teacher  should  at  once  seek  to  discover  them.     She 


334  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

should  inquire  into  the  past  history  and  present  conditions  and 
surroundings  to  discover  how  far  the  child's  pecuHarities  may  be 
accounted  for  by  heredity,  sickness,  accidents,  previous  school 
training,  special  home  conditions,  life  outside  of  school,  or  present 
defects.  Where  the  pecuUarities  are  undesirable,  their  causes 
should  be  removed  or  counteracted  as  far  as  possible.  Where 
they  are  in  the  nature  of  special  interests  or  powers,  the  teacher 
should  favor  their  development  so  far  as  may  be  without  inter- 
fering with  the  development  of  other  phases  of  the  child's  nature. 

Much  ingenuity  is  required  to  keep  all  the  members  of  an 
average  class  interested  and  actively  employed  all  of  the  time, 
because  of  difference  in  rate  and  accuracy  of  working;  yet,  if 
this  is  not  done  successfully,  some  children  are  confused,  others 
waste  their  time,  and  disorder  is  almost  sure  to  appear. 

When,  in  addition  to  what  may  be  called,  for  want  of  a  better 
term,  "average  pupils,"  the  teacher  has  many  who  are  peculiar, 
defective,  abnormal,  or  exceptional  in  some  way,  her  difficulties 
are  greatly  increased.  In  almost  every  school  there  are  children 
who  can  get  little  or  nothing  from  the  regular  class  work.  Teach- 
ers, with  the  large  number  of  pupils  they  usually  have,  cannot 
possibly  meet  fully  the  needs  of  such  children  without  sacrificing 
the  rest  of  the  school. 

It  is  therefore  desirable  that,  in  every  city,  ungraded  rooms 
for  individual  instruction  should  be  provided.  About  one 
room  in  every  ten  should  be  of  this  kind.  Two  types  of  ungraded 
schools  are  desirable :  one  for  primary  children,  who  are  so  de- 
fective or  peculiar  that  they  cannot  get  started  to  learning  readily 
in  an  ordinary  class ;  and  one  for  grammar-grade  children  who 
are  exceptional,  principally  in  their  rate  of  working  or  knowledge 
of  special  subjects,  and  who,  therefore,  need  special  training  in 
one  or  more  lines  in  order  to  be  fitted  for  the  next  grade.  With 
such  provision  many  peculiar  and  backward  children  soon  show 
themselves  capable  of  great  improvement,  and  children  who  have 


CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS  S5h 

in  some  way  got  behind  in  one  or  more  subjects  are  enabled  to 
pass  from  grade  to  grade  without  unnecessary  loss  of  time. 
Where  such  schools  are  not  provided,  some  children  are  sure  to 
sufifer,  and  some  of  the  best  teachers  to  worry,  because  of  the 
impossibility  of  meeting  both  class  and  individual  needs. 

Not  only  should  the  backward  children  have  special  provision 
made  for  individual  care,  but  also  the  talented  children  who  are 
sometimes  learning  to  waste  time  in  doing  only  the  regular  work 
of  the  class.  Such  pupils  should  be  given  opportunity  for  a 
fuller  exercise  of  their  general  and  special  talents,  but  should 
not  by  the  educative  advancement  be  shut  off  from  association 
with  companions  of  their  own  degree  of  physical  and  emotional 
maturity.  Social  experiences  with  others  of  one's  own  kind 
should  never  be  sacrificed  for  merely  intellectual  acquisitions. 

OBSERVATION  OF   FATIGUE  AND   NERVOUS   STATES 

Tests  that  would  be  of  value  to  the  ordinary  teacher  in  deter- 
mining the  adaptability  of  her  daily  program  to  her  children, 
and  in  discovering  exceptional  instances  of  fatigue  in  the  school 
or  in  individual  pupils,  have  been  sought  for  several  years.  It 
may  be  safely  said,  however,  that  no  method  of  discovering 
fatigue,  that  can  be  mechanically  appUed  by  a  teacher,  has  been 
found.  Such  tests  cannot  take  the  place  of  intelligent  common 
sense  and  good  judgment  on  her  part.  She  must  not  only  be 
able  to  note  the  decrease  in  rate  or  accuracy  of  working,  but 
must  also  learn  to  read  the  signs  of  oncoming  fatigue,  in  the 
pupil's  attitudes  and  movements. 

The  signs  that  appear  first  are  variation  and  wandering  of 
attention  or  increase  in  effort  to  attend,  or  in  movements  of  a 
fidgety  or  restless  character.  The  first  is  an  indication  of  mental 
fatigue,  and  the  last,  of  fatigue  of  muscles  that  have  been  con- 
tracted during  the  period  of  attention.  Sometimes  the  in- 
crease of  movement,  especially  when  the  fatigue  is  considerable, 


336  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

is  the  result  of  increased  irritability  of  the  nerve  centers,  re- 
sulting in  continual  outflow  of  energy  and  many  rather  nervous 
responses  to  sudden  auditory  and  other  stimuH. 

Other  more  or  less  common  and  significant  signs  of  fatigue 
and  exhaustion  that  the  teacher  may  observe  or  learn  by  inquiry 
are  as  follows :  jaded  expression  of  face,  drooping  attitude, 
paleness  or  redness  of  cheeks  or  tips  of  ears;  dazed,  weary, 
fixed,  or  lack-luster  appearance  of  the  eyes ;  sudden  movements, 
grimaces,  frowning,  compression  of  lips,  twitching  of  the  fingers, 
face,  eyes,  or  eyelids ;  unsteadiness  as  shown  in  bad  handwriting, 
mispronunciation  and  miscalling  of  words  in  talking  and  reading ; 
headache,  cold  feet,  sleeplessness,  dreaming,  teeth  grinding,  or 
talking  in  sleep ;  irritable,  cross,  or  peevish  disposition  or  moods  ; 
poor  hearing  and  imperfect  discrimination  of  words,  sometimes 
with  extreme  sensitiveness  to  disturbing  sounds;  blurring  of 
vision,  color  blindness,  and  double  images;  temporary  loss  of 
memory  of  famihar  or  recently  stated  names  or  facts ;  and  fail- 
ure of  mental  grasp,  as  indicated  by  inabiUty  to  follow  a  chain 
of  reasoning  and  a  tendency  to  forget  what  one  is  going  to  say. 

The  test  that  is  of  greatest  value  to  a  teacher  is  one  that  shows 
the  curve  of  fatigue  in  different  children,  because  this  throws 
much  light  on  their  individuality.  One  who  fatigues  very 
rapidly  and  recovers  with  equal  suddenness,  requires  quite  dif- 
ferent treatment  from  one  who  fatigues  very  slowly  and  gradually. 

Abnormal  brain  states,  though  themselves  sUght,  show  in  ex- 
pression and  behavior.  Impulses  are  continually  going  from 
the  brain  to  every  muscle,  organ,  and  gland,  as  well  as  from 
each  part  of  the  body  to  the  brain.  Imperfect  activity  of  the 
brain  may,  therefore,  be  shown  in  paleness  of  the  face,  slow 
growth  of  the  body,  and  imperfect  development  of  parts,  as  well 
as  in  attitude,  and  expression  of  face  and  movements;  while, 
conversely,  a  defect  or  disturbance  in  any  part  of  the  body  may 
affect  brain  activity  unfavorably.    It  is  well,  therefore,  to  notice 


CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS  337 

not  only  the  height  and  weight  of  a  child  for  his  age,  and  the 
color  of  the  skin,  but  also  the  signs  of  imperfect  development 
of  organs,  such  as  irregularities  in  shape  of  the  head,  narrow 
palate,  broad  bridge  of  the  nose  with  small  openings  in  nostrils, 
and  imperfectly  developed  external  ear;  for,  as  Dr.  Warner 
has  shown,  these  are  often  associated  with  poor  nutritive  con- 
dition and  mental  dullness. 

Even  more  important  are  what  he  calls  ^^ nerve  signs,"  which 
indicate  the  amount  of  nervous  energy  being  sent  to  the  different 
muscles  of  the  body,  and  hence  the  amount  and  regularity  of  the 
activity  in  different  parts  of  the  brain.  Wrinkling  of  the  fore- 
head is  always  indicative  of  some  brain  disturbance,  as  are  also 
irregular  and  meaningless  movements  of  any  part  of  the  body ; 
while  a  normal  brain  condition  is  shown  by  good  attitude  and 
well-balanced  and  coordinated  movements,  because  this  means 
chat  all  parts  of  the  brain  are  functioning  vigorously,  regularly, 
and  harmoniously.  Some  of  the  more  important  "nerve  signs" 
to  be  observed  are :  degree  of  erectness  of  body  and  head  in 
standing  or  sitting;  ability  to  hold  hands  straight  out  and 
evenly,  palms  down,  without  throwing  the  shoulders  back  and 
bending  the  spine  forward ;  and  to  keep  fingers  and  thumb 
straight  without  allowing  them  to  droop  or  to  bend  back  too 
much. 

The  effects  of  poor  nutrition  are  much  the  same  as  of  general 
fatigue,  as  far  as  the  power  to  do  the  work  of  the  school  is  con- 
cerned. The  common  signs  are  paleness,  fullness  under  the 
eyes,  fewness  or  irregularity  of  spontaneous  movements,  and 
lack  of  steadiness  of  control,  or  power  of  continued  application. 
Poor  nutrition  may  be  the  result :  of  lack  of  sleep ;  of  lack  of 
nutritious  food ;  of  indigestion,  due  to  irregular  eating  of  in- 
digestible food ;  or  to  a  diseased  condition  otherwise  produced. 
In  all  such  cases  the  teacher  may  try  to  secure  a  change  in  home 
conditions  and  habits,  which  will  make  it  possible  for  the  child 


338  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

to  do  the  work  and  conform  to  the  discipline  of  the  school,  or, 
this  failing,  she  may  modify  the  requirements  for  the  child  so 
that  he  will  not  be  overfatigued,  and  his  condition  made  worse 
rather  than  better  by  attendance  at  school. 

Nervousness  is  a  common  result  of  fatigue,  either  general  or 
local,  and  of  poor  nutrition.  Even  when  the  nervousness  is 
hereditary,  it  is  always  increased  by  these  conditions.  Ner- 
vousness is  a  condition  of  increased  irritability  of  nerve  centers, 
and  is  shown  by  excessive  movement  in  response  to  stimuH, 
especially  sudden  sounds,  and  in  lack  of  steady  and  perfect  con- 
trol of  movement.  Restlessness,  or  a  strong  tendency  to  move 
about  a  great  deal,  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  nervousness,  though 
one  is  due  to  excess  of  nervous  energy  and  the  other  to  irritability 
of  nerve  centers.  Either  nervousness  or  restlessness  may  be 
produced  by  trying  to  keep  still  in  a  certain  position,  or  by  en- 
gaging in  fine  work  that  necessitates  holding  the  larger  muscles 
steady  and  moving  accurately  a  group  of  smaller  ones. 

The  strong,  restless  child  may  be  benefited  greatly,  so  far  as 
abihty  to  behave  and  study  is  concerned,  by  an  interval  of 
vigorous  exercise;  while  the  nervous  child  would  be  exhausted 
and  quite  unfitted  for  the  next  work  by  such  vigorous  activity. 
He  should  have  instead  mild  exercise,  or  a  chance  for  quiet  rest. 
It  is  especially  important  that  the  nervous  child  should  not  be 
scolded,  found  fault  with,  or  in  any  way  induced  to  work  hard 
or  worry  about  his  work.  A  teacher  who  is  loud  of  voice,  un- 
attractive in  dress,  and  sudden  and  variable  in  manner  is  especially 
irritating  to  a  nervous  child,  and  may  be  the  chief  occasion 
of  the  nervousness.  Although  a  teacher  should  be  quick  to 
note  signs  of  nervousness,  she  should  avoid  making  the  child 
conscious  of  his  condition.  The  establishment  of  regular  habits 
of  work  and  of  rest  or  amusement  are  of  great  value  in  decreasing 
nervousness. 

Chorea  or  St.  Vitus's  dance  is  somewhat  allied,  in  appearance 


CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS  339 

and  cause,  to  nervousness;  yet  it  is  a  disease  rather  than  a 
temporary  condition.  It  is  not,  like  nervousness,  due  to  general 
irritability  of  the  nerve  centers  as  shown  by  increased  response 
to  stimuH,  but  to  a  more  or  less  spontaneous  and  abnormal 
action  of  certain  nerve  centers  and  muscle  groups,  which  gives 
rise  to  useless  and  meaningless  movements  of  certain  portions 
of  the  body,  and  produces  partial  or  total  inability  to  perform, 
comparatively  simple  acts,  such  as  writing,  buttoning  clothes, 
touching  a  point  with  a  finger,  walking,  or  talking.  It  may  be 
manifested  in  the  mild  form  of  occasional  twitching  or  jerking 
of  one  hand,  or  in  the  severer  form  of  jerking  and  twitching  of 
muscles  of  one  half  or  of  all  the  body.  In  mild  cases  it  may  be 
detected  by  holding  the  child's  hand  between  the  palms,  and 
noting  the  twitching,  or  by  observing  the  movements  of  the 
tongue. 

It  is  preeminently  a  disease  of  childhood,  for  34  per  cent  of 
the  cases  occur  between  five  and  ten  years  of  age,  and  45  per 
cent  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  fifteen.  It  is  most  common 
in  the  thirteenth  year  for  girls,  who  are  about  twice  as  liable  to 
it  as  boys.  The  largest  number  of  cases  occur  in  the  spring,  and 
an  attack  usually  lasts  from  four  to  ten  weeks.  It  is  frequently 
associated  with  rheumatism  and  heart  disease;  but  its  most 
frequent  cause  is  excitement,  especially  fright.  Bright  children 
are  more  subject  to  it  than  dull  ones.  Worry,  fright,  and  fatigue 
make  it  worse,  and  often  bring  on  another  attack  after  recovery. 

The  best  remedy  for  it  is  as  complete  rest  as  possible  of  mind 
and  body,  with  nutritious  and  easily  digested  food.  If  possible, 
the  child  should  be  kept  in  bed  day  and  night  for  some  time, 
even  though  he  is  at  first  restless.  In  any  case  he  should  not 
be  allowed  to  continue  in  school,  unless  the  home  conditions 
are  extremely  irritating  and  unfavorable.  He  is  likely  to  be 
made  worse  by  the  effort  to  keep  up  with  his  class,  and  his  pres- 
ence in  school  often  affects  unfavorably  nervous  and  choreatic 


340 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 


children,  especially  the  latter.  There  is  no  doubt  that  chorea 
may  be  produced  in  such  children  by  force  of  suggestion.  When 
there  are  children  in  the  school  hable  to  chorea,  particular  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  excessive  fatigue,  excitement,  fright, 
or  worry,  caused  by  reproofs  or  severe  examinations. 

Stuttering  is  sometimes  very  properly  classified  as  a  form  of 
chorea,  for  there  is  in  reality  a  spasmodic  contraction  or  twitch- 
ing of  some  of  the  muscles  concerned  in  speech.  Stammering 
is  want  of  proper  control  of  the  muscles  of  speech  so  that  words 
are  not  readily  pronounced  or  the  sounds  given  in  the  proper 
order  because  of  inhibition  of  action  in  certain  centers.  If, 
however,  a  stammerer  becomes  embarrassed,  this  temporary 
condition  of  nervousness  may  lead  to  spasmodic  activity  of  the 
centers  and  consequent  stuttering  which  may  become  a  habit, 
though  there  is  no  real  chorea. 

There  are  three  principal  groups  of  muscles  concerned  in 
speech :  (i)  the  muscles  of  breathing  which  control  the  flow  of 
air,  (2)  the  muscles  of  phonation  that  control  the  vocal  cords, 
and  (3)  the  muscles  of  articulation  which  are  concerned  in  mold- 
ing the  sounds  in  the  mouth.  Correct  pronunciation  requires 
not  only  that  all  of  these  muscles  shall  act  perfectly,  but  that 
the  different  groups  shall  act  harmoniously  and  in  the  right 
order.  Stuttering  and  stammering  are  caused  by  lack  of  proper 
harmony  as  to  amount,  time,  or  order  of  contraction  of  the  dif- 
ferent groups  of  muscles,  while  ordinary  defects  in  pronunciation 
are  usually  due  to  an  improper  use  of  the  muscles  of  articulation 
which  mold  the  sounds  in  the  mouth.  Stuttering  and  stam- 
mering, therefore,  call  first  for  training  in  breathing,  then  in 
phonation,  and  then  in  these  processes  combined  with  articula- 
tion, rather  than  training  in  articulation  alone. 

An  habitual  stutterer  or  stammerer  should  not  continue  in 
school,  because  the  embarrassment  of  trying  to  recite  is  likely 
to  increase  the  difficulty,  and  his  presence  in  the  school  may 


CHILD  STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS  341 

develop,  by  imitation  and  suggestion,  a  similar  defect  in  other 
children  who  have  the  slightest  tendency  in  that  direction.  A 
specialist,  rather  than  an  ordinary  teacher,  is  needed  to  deal 
with  such  defects  when  they  have  become  habitual.  Incipient 
cases  may,  however,  often  be  prevented  from  developing  by  the 
wise  teacher,  though  perhaps  not  without  individual  work  with 
the  child  when  other  pupils  are  not  present.  Some  drill  in 
breathing  and  phonation  is  often  needed;  but  the  principal 
thing  is  to  free  the  child  from  the  embarrassment  of  trying  to  say 
what  he  cannot,  and  to  inspire  him  with  confidence  in  his  ability 
to  speak.  Sometimes  concert  drills  in  breathing,  phonation, 
and  articulation,  alternating  with  the  same  exercise  by  designated 
individuals,  will  be  of  advantage  to  the  whole  school  and  at  the 
same  time  completely  cure  the  incipient  stammerer  or  stutterer. 

SUGGESTIVE   OUTLINES   FOR   OBSERVATION 

Countless  outlines  and  directions  for  the  study  of  children 
may  be,  and  have  been,  made.  Though  many  are  so  complete 
as  to  be  cumbersome,  none  of  them  are  exactly  suited  to  indicate 
the  special  peculiarity  of  every  child.  Minute  analysis  of  the 
characteristics  of  individuals  is  interesting  to  a  certain  extent, 
and  has  some  value  as  training  for  the  teacher,  but  she  gains 
little  from  frequent  attempts  to  analyze  minutely  the  character- 
istics of  all  her  pupils.  Usually,  she  has  only  a  few  exceptional 
pupils  who  need  much  special  study  and  treatment.  Except 
in  the  case  of  a  few  pupils,  who  are  all-round  puzzles,  the  teacher 
generally  needs  to  study  only  the  causes  and  effects  of  one  or  two 
fundamental  peculiarities  as  a  means  of  knowing  what  to  do  for 
a  child.  The  significance  of  any  peculiarity  depends  not  so  much 
upon  its  prominence,  as  compared  with  that  characteristic  in 
other  children,  as  upon  its  prominence  as  compared  with  other 
qualities  possessed  by  the  same  individual.  Even  exact  physical 
data,  such  as  the  lung  capacity  of  a  ten-year-old  boy,  have  no 


342  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

significance  until  you  know  whether  the  boy  is  large  or  small 
for  his  age.  The  teacher,  therefore,  needs  to  compare  the  child's 
characteristics  with  the  others  that  he  possesses,  to  determine 
their  harmony  and  unity,  rather  than  simply  to  compare  them 
with  those  of  his  companions. 

The  outlines  given  below  are  not  intended  to  be  in  any  way 
complete,  but  merely  to  be  suggestive  of  what  is  likely  to  be 
most  significant  regarding  a  school,  recitation,  or  individual. 

The  following  questions  prepared  for  normal  students  about 
to  enter  the  practice  schools  are  good  ones  for  any  teacher  to 
ask  soon  after  taking  charge  of  a  new  school. 

I.    OUTLINE   FOR    THE    STUDY  OF   A   NEW   SCHOOL 

1.  Should  there  be  any  change  in  the  light  or  ventilation  of  the  room,  or 
in  the  seats  of  the  pupils?  What  portions  of  the  blackboard  are  dearly 
visible  from  the  different  parts  of  the  room  ? 

2.  Is  the  school  as  a  whole  about  the  average  for  schools  of  this  grade  in 
age,  size,  ability,  and  advancement? 

3.  Are  there  any  pupils  who  are  much  behind  or  ahead  in  any  of  these 
respects,  and  if  so,  what  explanation  of  such  variations  can  you  give  ? 

4.  Are  there  any  pupils  who  show  signs  of  poor  health,  nervousness, 
defects  of  eye  and  ear,  and  if  so,  what  are  the  signs  you  have  noticed? 
What  can  the  teacher  do  for  such  pupils? 

5.  What  do  you  notice  in  the  habits  and  disposition  of  the  school  as  a 
whole  that  is  good,  and  what  that  needs  improvement?  What  improve- 
ment do  you  expect  to  try  to  make  ? 

6.  Answer  the  same  question  as  in  5  for  individual  children  who  have 
habits  and  dispositions  different  from  the  rest  of  the  school. 

7.  What  subjects  are  the  pupils  most  interested  in  and  what  least? 

8.  The  same  questions  as  in  7  for  individual  pupils  differing  from  the  rest. 

9.  Make  a  special  study  of  any  child  who  seems  to  be  a  leader  of  a  part  or 
all  the  school,  trying  to  determine  how  he  leads  his  companions,  and  how 
he  can  best  be  led  by  the  teacher. 

The  following  outlines  are  intended  to  be  used  by  normal 
students  who  are  preparing  to  teach,  but  more  experienced 
teachers  may  find  them  of  some  value. 


CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED   IN  SCHOOLS  343 

II.    SUGGESTIONS   FOR   OBSERVING   INDIVIDUAL   PUPILS 

In  getting  acquainted  with  children  it  will  be  of  advantage  to  note  facts 
and  form  judgments  in  regard  to  the  following  points  so  far  as  you  have 
opportunity  to  do  so. 

1.  Physical  Characteristics. 
Size  of  child  for  his  age. 
Health. 

Evidence  of,  or  freedom  from,  nervousness. 
Characteristics  of  attitudes  and  movements. 
Condition  of  eyes  and  ears. 

2.  School  Work. 

Work  as  compared  with  the  average  of  his  class. 
Success  in  different  subjects. 
Chief  merits  or  defects  as  a  pupil. 

3.  Life  outside  of  School. 
Character  of  his  home. 

Occupations  outside  of  school  in  the  way  of  studying,  reading,  working, 

or  playing. 
Characteristics  shown  outside  of  school  different  from  those  in  school. 

4.  Mental  Characteristics. 

Ability,  quickness,  and  accuracy  in  perceiving,  imaging,  remembering, 
and  reasoning. 

Emotional  characteristics  as  manifested  in  fear,  anger,  jealousy,  bash- 
fulness,  pride,  and  interests. 

Effect  of  praise  and  blame. 

Character  of  attention,  reflex  or  voluntary,  continuous  or  intermittent, 
intense  or  slight. 

Actions,  impulsive  or  deliberate. 

Persistency  or  lack  of  it  in  working.  How  best  appealed  to?  What 
is  needed  most,  stimvdation,  repression,  or  direction? 

Evidence  of  his  tendency  to  lead  or  to  follow  and  imitate. 

III.     SUGGESTIONS   FOR   OBSERVING  A   RECITATION 

Is  the  lesson  (a)  a  review  and  drill  lesson,  or  (6)  the  presentation  of  new 
truths? 


344  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

If  (a),  is  the  chief  aim  to  fix  in  memory  or  to  gain  speed  and  accviracy 
in  what  is  already  known  ? 

Does  the  teacher  rely  upon  many  repetitions  for  her  results,  or  does  she 
depend  more  upon  intensity  of  interest? 

To  what  extent  does  interest  and  success  depend  upon  the  rate  of  work- 
ing, devices  used,  and  variety  introduced  into  the  drill?  Are  all  the 
children  kept  busy  all  the  time  during  the  lesson? 

If  (b),  what  is  the  aim  of  the  lesson? 

1 .  Subject  Matter. 

What  is  given  the  children  ?  What  can  you  say  as  to  the  amount  and 
arrangement  of  this  subject  matter  and  its  connection  with  preceding 
lessons  and  those  that  are  to  follow? 

2.  The  Teaching. 

Is  the  subject  matter  presented  by  means  of  objects,  representations  of 
objects  (pictures,  diagrams,  models,  maps),  or  by  means  of  words 
(printed  or  oral),  or  by  a  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these? 

Notice  what  means  (questioning  or  other)  the  teacher  uses  to  connect 
truths  taught  with  each  other,  and  to  lead  to  general  conclusions  and 
their  appHcations. 

3.  The  Class. 

Are  the  pupils  attentive  and  interested  ? 

What  in  subject  matter  or  mode  of  representation  is  or  is  not  suited  to 
the  age,  knowledge,  and  ability  of  the  children  ? 

What  mental  powers  are  they  using  principally,  perceptive,  representa- 
tive, or  thinking? 

What  kinds  of  apperceptive  knowledge  are  they  recalling:  (i)  previous 
knowledge  of  the  same  or  other  subjects  studied,  or  (2)  knowledge 
gotten  outside  of  school  by  hearsay,  observation,  and  experience?  To 
what  extent  do  they  relate  the  old  knowledge  to  the  new,  with  or 
without  suggestion? 

Notice  if  correct  general  conclusions  are  reached,  and  if  they  are  ap- 
plied to  particular  cases  correctly. 

What  habits  of  the  class  do  you  notice? 

4.  Individual  Children. 

Report  all  significant  individual  peculiarities  that  you  note  during  the 
recitation. 


CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED   IN  SCHOOLS  345 

A  good  way  of  promoting  child  study  among  teachers  is  to 
call  for  reports  regarding  all  pupils  having  a  certain  character- 
istic in  a  marked  degree;  as,  quick  temper,  perseverance,  poor 
sight,  restlessness ;  or  regarding  those  who  are  good  in  reading 
or  spelling  or  arithmetic,  or  those  remarkable  for  size,  quickness, 
or  lack  of  energy.  Let  each  teacher  describe  one  or  two  of  her 
pupils  who  have  in  a  marked  degree  the  characteristic  selected, 
telling  how  they  are  in  other  respects,  and  what  she  finds  to  be 
the  best  mode  of  dealing  with  them.  Such  comparison  and 
discussion  of  similar  experiences  will  be  very  helpful  and  lead 
to  further  observations. 

REPORTS  AND   RECORDS 

There  has  unquestionably  been  much  vexation  of  spirit  and 
waste  of  time  in  making  child-study  reports,  as  well  as  in  the  re- 
ports required  by  the  old-time  marking  system.  Such  reports, 
therefore,  should  be  as  brief  and  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
teacher  as  significant  as  possible.  One  like  the  following  may 
be  made  two  or  three  times  a  year  with  profit  to  all  concerned. 

Name  of  pupil Grade Sex Date  of  Birth 

Particularly  good  or  poor  in  what  subjects,  if  any. 

Character  of  conduct. 

Remarks  regarding  characteristics  important  to  recognize  in  dealing  with 
the  child  (as  sensitiveness,  stubbornness,  slowness,  lack  of  persistence,  spe- 
cial interests,  special  physical  or  home  conditions,  etc.). 

Evidence  of  a  change  for  better  or  worse  in  work  or  conduct. 

Date Teacher 

Such  reports  as  these  are  of  temporary  value,  but  are  not  of 
great  significance  for  permanent  preservation.  Children  are 
so  variable  in  their  conduct,  and  show  forth  such  different  char- 
acteristics to  different  persons,  that  such  reports  may  be  more 
misleading  than  enlightening  to  subsequent  teachers.  The  best 
pupil  under  one  teacher  may  be  the  worst  under  another,  and 


346  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

the  child  least  interesting  to  his  teacher  at  the  beginning  of 
the  year  may  be  the  most  attractive  at  the  close. 

The  same  actions  may  also  be  iaterpreted  by  one  teacher  as 
shyness  and  by  another  as  stubbornness,  or  as  sensitiveness  by 
one  and  as  lack  of  feeling  by  another.  For  these  reasons  it  is 
often  better  for  a  teacher  to  get  acquainted  with  her  pupils 
before  she  reads  the  reports  another  teacher  has  made  regarding 
them. 

With  data  obtained  by  tests,  and  from  inquiry  regarding  the 
home  Ufe  and  past  educational  history  of  the  child,  the  case  is 
different.  Such  facts,  if  not  more  reliable,  are  at  least  more  per- 
manently significant.  The  number  of  such  facts  that  may  he 
of  value  is  almost  infinite,  but  the  number  that  it  will  be  found 
practicable  to  obtain  and  keep  on  record  is  very  limited  in  most 
schools,  where  so  many  other  things  demand  the  immediate 
attention  of  teachers  and  superintendent.  The  admission  card 
should  state  at  least  these  facts :  date  of  birth,  residence,  nation- 
aUty  of  parents,  occupation  of  father,  and  school  attendance 
and  promotions.  Some  records  of  objective  tests  and  measure- 
ments of  physical  growth,  mental  ability,  and  pedagogical  at- 
tainments may  be  made  and  kept  with  profit.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  are  tests  of  sight  and  hearing  and  of  physical 
condition.  If  it  is  not  practicable  to  have  all  the  children 
tested,  teachers  should  themselves  closely  observe  all  signs  of 
defects  in  hearing  and  sight,  and  test  pupils  who  show  any  signs 
whatever  of  such  defects. 

Defects  of  hearing  are  to  be  found  in  every  schoolroom.  Any 
pupil  who  is  habitually  inattentive  or  apparently  careless,  or 
who  watches  a  teacher's  mouth  very  closely  when  speaking,  or 
who  looks  to  see  what  other  pupils  are  doing  before  beginning 
to  follow  directions,  should  be  observed,  and,  if  necessary, 
tested,  to  discover  whether  his  hearing  is  defective.  The  teacher 
should  notice  if  it  makes  any  difference  whether  she  stands  close 


CHILD  STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS  347 

in  front  of,  behind,  or  on  the  right  or  left  of  the  child  when  she 
speaks  to  him,  and  whether  he  shows  that  he  hears  when  there 
is  no  possible  chance  for  him  to  guess  what  is  said. 

The  detection  of  poor  hearing  is  difficult  for  (i)  the  defect 
may  be  in  one  ear  only ;  (2)  may  be  greater  at  some  times  than 
at  others,  especially  when  the  child  has  a  cold  ;  (3)  if  the  atten- 
tion is  first  secured,  hearing  is  often  surprisingly  improved  ;  (4) 
nearly  all  children  with  poor  hearing  have  learned  to  make 
shrewd  guesses  at  what  is  being  said ;  (5)  few  buildings  are 
sufficiently  quiet  for  accurate  tests  to  be  made. 

In  all  doubtful  cases,  at  least,  the  teacher  should  test  the 
children  with  the  watch  or  other  convenient  means.  Several 
persons  should  be  tested  with  the  watch  to  find  out  how  far  it 
can  be  heard  by  normal  ears,  for  watches  vary  greatly  in  loudness. 
The  child  should  look  straight  ahead  and  hold  a  card  against 
his  face  so  as  to  conceal  from  his  view  the  movements  of  the  one 
testing  him.  Often  a  child  thinks  he  hears  a  watch  when  he 
does  not,  hence  it  may  be  necessary  to  occasionally  cover  it 
tightly  with  the  hands  in  such  a  way  as  to  muffle  the  sound, 
in  order  to  determine  positively  whether  or  not  the  child  hears. 
If  the  distance  in  a  quiet  room  at  which  a  child  can  hear  a  watch 
is  less  than  three  feet,  his  hearing  is  almost  surely  defective, 
and  it  may  be  if  the  distance  is  greater. 

When  a  child  is  known  to  have  poor  hearing  nothing  should 
be  said  about  it,  but  he  should  be  placed  in  as  favorable  a  position 
as  possible  for  hearing  what  the  teacher  and  also  his  classmates 
say,  and  the  teacher  should  take  special  pains  to  see  that  he  does 
hear  all  directions  that  he  is  expected  to  follow.  Children  with 
defective  hearing  frequently  form  habits  of  inattention,  and  some- 
times, when  they  are  aware  of  their  deficiency,  try  to  excuse 
themselves  for  failure  to  do  things  they  have  been  told  to  do, 
on  the  ground  that  they  did  not  understand.  The  teacher 
should  take  the  greatest  pains  to  make  this  excuse  an  impossible 


348  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

one,  and  to  break  up  habits  of  inattention.  Under  no  circum- 
stances should  the  teacher  assume  that  the  child  heard,  or  could 
have  heard  if  he  had  tried,  and  blame  him  for  not  so  doing ;  but 
she  should  have  tested  iiim  thoroughly  so  that  she  knows,  both 
from  the  conditions  and  from  his  expression  of  face  or  oral  ac- 
knowledgment that  he  has  heard,  and  then  she  should  hold 
him  responsible  for  remembering  and  doing  what  he  is  told. 
To  manage  a  child  with  poor  hearing  without  either  doing  him 
an  injustice,  or  "babying"  and  unwisely  excusing  him  for  non- 
performance or  imperfect  performance  of  tasks,  often  requires 
great  tact  and  wisdom. 

Dejects  of  the  eye  are  more  common,  but  somewhat  less  sub- 
ject to  serious  misunderstanding  than  those  of  the  ear.  Pupils 
who  hold  books  in  unusual  positions,  who  wink  or  rub  their 
eyes  a  good  deal,  who  frequently  fail  to  do  perfectly  work  placed 
on  the  board,  or  whose  eyes  look  red,  weak,  or  tired,  or  who  have 
frequent  headaches,  or  who  wrinkle  the  brows,  or  show  other 
signs  of  nervousness,  should  be  tested. 

One  of  the  best  cards  for  testing,  and  the  only  kind  that  can 
be  successfully  used  with  first-grade  children,  is  one  in  which 
it  is  not  necessary  to  name  the  letters,  but  merely  to  tell  which 
way  a  series  of  E's  of  different  sizes  points.  In  order  that  there 
may  be  no  misunderstanding,  it  will  be  well,  with  small  children, 
to  first  test  them  close  enough  to  the  card  to  be  sure  that  they 
know  which  way  the  letters  point,  and  how  to  indicate  the 
direction  of  the  letters  by  pointing  or  by  words.  The  child 
should  then  be  placed  with  his  back  to  a  window,  holding  a  stiff 
card  over  (not  against)  one  eye,  and  asked  to  tell  which  way  the 
letters,  indicated  with  a  pencil,  point.  The  distance  should  be 
that  for  the  smallest  or  next  to  the  smallest  letters  on  the  card, 
and,  of  course,  the  largest  letters  should  be  pointed  to  first.  In 
pointing  it  is  well  to  hold  the  pencil  vertically  under  the  letter, 
that  the  letter  may  not  be  partly  covered,  or  shadowed,  by  the 


CHILD  STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS  349 

pencil,  and  that  there  may  be  no  doubt  as  to  which  one  is  meant. 
The  record  of  the  test  is  made  by  taking  the  distance  at  which 
the  card  is  held  as  the  numerator,  and  the  number  of  the  last 
line  of  letters  read  as  the  denominator  of  the  fraction.  Thus, 
if  the  distance  is  5  metres,  and  the  number  of  the  line  last  read 
is  10,  the  record  will  be  ^.  This  means  that  the  child  can  read 
at  5  meters  what  a  normal  child  can  read  at  10  meters. 

The  above  test  will  usually,  though  not  always,  be  sufficient 
to  detect  serious  defects  of  vision,  but  in  doubtful  cases  should 
be  supplemented  by  tests  for  near  vision  and  for  astigmatism. 
As  soon  as  a  teacher  is  fully  convinced  that  a  pupil's  eyes  are 
seriously  defective,  she  should  advise  the  parents  to  have  them 
examined  by  a  specialist.  In  the  meantime,  she  should  place 
the  child  where  he  will  have  the  best  conditions  possible  for  seeing. 

The  following  form  of  card  prepared  by  Professor  Bird  T.  Bald- 
win may  be  used  both  for  records  of  physical  measurements  and 
as  standards  of  comparison.  The  most  significant  figures  on  the 
card  are  the  ratio  of  breathing  power  to  weight.  Children  who 
rank  low  in  this  coefficient  for  their  age  are  usually  either  lacking 
in  physical  vigor  or  are  backward  in  physical  and  mental  develop- 
ment. On  the  other  hand,  those  who  rank  high  for  their  age 
are  usually  vigorous  physically  and  more  mature  both  physically 
and  mentally  than  the  average.  All  pupils  showing  great  de- 
viations from  the  norm  should  receive  careful  study  and,  if 
necessary,  special  treatment. 

TESTS    AND   STANDARDS   IN   THE   STUDY  OF   CHILDREN 

Psychologists  and  child-study  specialists  have  been  busy 
during  the  last  few  years  devising  and  perfecting  tests  and  es- 
tablishing standards  that  may  be  useful  in  studying  children. 
Some  of  these  are  now  available,  but  changes  are  being  rapidly 
made  and  it  will  be  a  long  while  before  the  best  tests  can  be 
selected,  standardized,  and  substituted  for  the  teacher's  observa- 


350 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 


These  norms  represent  well-developed  children  with  school-medical 
inspection  and  physical  training.  A  small  child  for  a  given  age  may  be 
well  developed  if  the  coefficients,  height,  weight,  and  breathing  capacity  re- 
lationships, are  normal  and  approximate  those  indicated.    The  formula  is 

Weight  -^  height  =  weight-height  coefl&cient. 

Breathing  capacity  -i-  height  =  vital-height  coefficient. 

For  example.  For  52  years,  41  lbs.  -=-43  in.  =  .95  weight-height 
coefficient. 

In  the  metric  system  use  height  in  centimeters,  weight  in  kilograms, 
and  breathing  capacity  in  liters.  The  English  weight-height  coefficient 
normsX  -179= metric  weight-height  coefficient  norms.  The  English  vitrj- 
height  coefficient  norms  X  .00645 = metric  vital-height  coefficient  norms. 


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CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED   IN  SCHOOLS 


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These  norms  represent  well-developed  children  with  school-medical 
inspection  and  physical  training.    A  small  child  for  a  given  age  may  be 
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In  the  metric  system  use  height  in  centimeters,  weight  in  kilograms, 
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352  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

tion  and  individual  judgment.  Indeed,  it  is  only  in  certain  lines 
that  tests  may  take  the  place  of  observ^ation,  and  in  many  cases 
even  in  these  lines  the  observations  of  the  teacher  made  while 
the  test  is  being  taken,  will  furnish  valuable  supplementar}-  data. 

Standard  tests  of  physical  growth  and  ability,  such  as  measure- 
ment of  height,  grip,  lung  capacity,  etc.,  var}'  only  slightly  with 
the  personality  of  the  one  who  makes  them.  More  care  is  re- 
quired in  securing  the  conditions  necessary  to  accurate  measure- 
ments and  calling  forth  the  best  efforts  of  children  in  the  strength 
tests. 

In  testing  for  sense  and  motor  defects  still  more  care  is  needed 
in  getting  accurate  results,  since  children  are  readily  affected 
by  suggestions  of  the  observer  and  are  much  inclined  to  use 
other  senses  than  the  one  being  tested.  They  also  guess  or  infer 
on  the  basis  of  the  situation  presented  and  truths  already  known. 
These  factors  are  of  considerable  importance,  especially  in  testing 
hearing  by  means  of  a  watch  or  the  voice.  Slight  movements 
of  the  observer  or  changes  in  his  tone  of  voice  are  responded  to 
rather  than  the  sounds  being  used  as  tests. 

In  the  more  distinctly  mental  tests  not  only  must  care  similar 
to  that  exercised  in  testing  for  sense  defects  be  exercised,  but  the 
mental  status  of  a  child  may  be  determined  as  readily  by  an  ex- 
perienced observer  who  watches  how  the  child  works  as  by  the 
unskilled  observer  who  merely  records  the  objective  results 
achieved  by  him.  This  applies  especially  to  tests  of  mental 
intelligence.  In  so  far  as  success  and  speed  are  dependent  upon 
the  use  of  certain  methods  of  working  rather  than  upon  the 
rapidity  of  movement  and  thought,  as  in  the  form  board  and 
other  tests,  they  indicate  whether  the  subjects  have  sufficient 
intelligence  to  proceed  in  an  efficient  way.  The  test  gives  the 
experienced  observer  a  chance  to  note  the  significant  thing, 
how  the  subject  works ;  but  this  is  something  not  easily  made  a 
matter  of  accurate  and  understandable  record.    The  best  tests 


CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS  353 

will  be  those  that  involve  intelligent  methods  as  a  necessary 
means  to  success,  regardless  of  the  time  required,  or  that  provide 
a  definite  means  of  recording  the  manner  of  working.  To  do 
this  becomes  more  and  more  difficult  as  higher  mental  processes 
are  tested.  For  example,  it  is  hard  to  objectively  determine 
the  correctness  and  maturity  of  concepts  as  indicated  by  defini- 
tions, although  an  expert  can  readily  see  that  a  given  definition 
indicates  more  or  less  maturity  of  mind. 

The  most  valuable  tests  of  maturity  of  intelligence  thus  far 
are  the  Binet  tests  and  modifications  of  those  tests,  and  they 
have  proved  most  useful  in  selecting  feeble-minded  and  back- 
ward children.  Progress  is  being  rapidly  made  in  rendering 
tests  more  independent  of  the  observations,  knowledge,  and 
judgment  of  the  observer  and  also  in  developing  those  measuring 
the  higher  powers  of  an  individual  and  indicating  his  personal 
characteristics ;  yet  observation  and  personal  judgment  must 
for  many  years,  and  perhaps  always,  retain  a  large  measure  of  use- 
fulness. These  judgments  are  greatly  improved  by  being  made 
in  connection  with  familiar  and  definitely  conditioned  tests ; 
hence  the  tests  are  valuable  for  observational  purposes  even 
when  the  objective  results  alone  cannot  be  depended  upon. 

It  must  be  recognized  also  that  scientific  tests  are  suited  to  meas- 
uring quantity  rather  than  quality ;  hence  in  studying  human 
beings  personal  observation  and  judgment  must  always  be  used 
in  dealing  with  them.  An  experienced  observer  in  any  line 
may  more  quickly  "size  up"  an  individual  and  interpret  a  sit- 
uation than  can  a  scientist  by  means  of  tests ;  hence  it  will  always 
be  of  advantage  for  teachers  to  be  good  observers  of  children, 
however  perfect  the  means  of  testing  them  may  become. 

Tests  of  children  to  determine  special  talent  and  vocational 
ability  are  being  developed  and  will  probably  prove  to  be  of 
value,  especially  in  some  lines.  They  will  always,  however,  be 
subject  to  important  limitations.    One  is  that  success  depends 

3A 


354  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

not  simply  upon  special  ability  of  one  kind,  but  upon  general 
ability  and  several  varieties  of  special  ability  as  well  as  upon 
energy  and  perseverance  and  upon  social  qualities.  Different 
species  of  animals  survive  by  different  means,  and  in  a  similar 
way  individual  men  succeed  in  the  same  occupation  by  different 
qualifications  and  methods.  The  probabilities  of  success  or 
failure  indicated  by  the  tests  of  supposedly  necessary  powers 
may  be  more  than  counterbalanced  by  strength  or  weakness 
in  other  lines.  Only  a  beginning  has  been  made  in  this  field, 
but  the  studies  of  Wooley  indicate  that  general  ability  is  more 
significant  for  vocational  direction  than  special  talent. 

One  of  the  most  promising  uses  of  tests  is  in  objective  deter- 
mination of  the  results  of  teaching.  The  effects  of  the  teaching 
upon  the  personality  of  the  individual  can  probably  never  be 
measured  in  any  completeness  by  objective  tests,  but  the  ability 
to  make  use  of  one's  teaching  in  certain  ways  may  be.  The 
ordinary  method  of  estimating  these  results  by  examinations 
and  by  the  judgment  of  teachers  is  notoriously  unreliable.  By 
the  help  of  psychologists,  educators  will  in  the  future  be  able  to 
use  standard  tests  with  considerable  accuracy  in  determining 
the  results  of  teaching.  When  these  tests  have  been  fully  de- 
veloped, simplified,  and  standardized,  it  will  probably  not  be  more 
difficult  for  teachers  to  use  them  than  it  has  been  to  use  the  old 
marking  and  examination  system.  The  results  of  such  tests 
have  a  definite  meaning  by  whomsoever  given,  while  under  the 
present  system,  95  per  cent  from  one  teacher  may  mean  no  more 
than  does  75  per  cent  from  another.  The  tests  that  are  of  most 
use  so  far,  are  in  handwriting,  arithmetic,  spelling,  and  reading. 

Not  only  are  standard  tests  useful,  but  norms  or  standards 
of  achievement  are  necessary  in  interpreting  the  results  of  tests 
given  to  an  individual  or  a  school.  These  norms,  however, 
should  be  regarded  as  means  of  facilitating  comparisons  and  as 
aids  in  forming  judgments,  and  rarely  should  they  be  set  up  as 


CHILD  STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS  355 

ideals  or  standards  to  which  individuals  must  conform.  Chil- 
dren should  not  be  treated  as  regards  their  mental  qualities  as 
Procrustes  treated  his  victims  in  their  physical  persons.  We  do 
not  try  to  make  an  individual  taU  or  short,  and  no  more  should 
we  insist  upon  his  reaching  the  average  standard  in  handwriting, 
arithmetical  calculation,  etc.,  regardless  of  whether  the  efforts 
being  put  forth  are  bringing  sufficient  results  to  justify  continuing 
that  rather  than  some  other  form  of  training. 

If  tests  are  sufficiently  simplified,  a  teacher  by  using  them  may 
quickly  discover  a  pupil's  place  in  the  educational  field  and  can 
put  him  with  pupils  of  like  attainments  for  further  training. 
At  intervals  he  may  be  tested,  and  on  the  basis  of  his  progress 
in  various  lines  his  further  training  may  be  decided.  It  is  gen- 
erally best  to  have  him  approach  the  norms  of  other  pupils  if  he 
can  be  brought  to  do  so  without  expending  too  much  time  and 
energy,  but  the  possibilities  of  useful  development  which  he  pos- 
sesses in  the  greatest  degree  should  be  sought,  in  order  that  he 
may  be  given  opportunity  to  gain  most  by  working  in  the  line 
of  his  endowments  rather  than  in  the  field  of  his  greatest  de- 
ficiencies. 

The  tests  and  standards  now  being  developed  will  be  of  im- 
measurable value  not  only  in  developing  a  science  of  education 
and  as  an  aid  to  practical  administrators,  but  to  the  individual 
teacher.  They  will  give  her  much  more  exact  data  than  can  be 
obtained  by  mere  observation,  and  they  will  afford  her  a  good  op- 
portunity for  making  valuable  observations,  yet  scientific  tests 
can  never  take  the  place  of  sympathetic  observation  of  personal 
characteristics  and  of  quick  perception  of  the  moods  of  pupils, 
in  deciding  how  to  deal  with  them  at  the  moment.  The  success- 
ful teacher  of  the  future  will  learn  to  use  the  tests  prescribed  by 
specialists  as  an  aid  to  more  accurate  judgment  of  conditions 
and  more  intelligent  plans  for  dealing  with  children,  and  not 
as  js^bstitutes  for  her  own  intelligence  and  tact. 


3S6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

The  books  of  most  general  value  on  the  subject  of  studying  children  in 
school  are  those  of  Warner,  Rowe,  Hastings,  and  Groszmann,  and  the 
reports  of  Christopher  and  Smedley  to  the  Chicago  Board  of  Education, 
while  various  educational  journals  and  reports  of  child-study  societies, 
especially  of  Illinois  and  Minnesota,  contain  numerous  outlines  and 
suggestions,  and  also  some  reports  of  school  superintendents  such  as 
Spaulding  of  Passaic,  N.  J. 

On  the  school  conditions,  works  on  school  hygiene,  such  as  Kotelmann, 
Shaw,  or  Burrage  and  Bailey,  should  be  consulted  if  necessary,  and 
also  the  following  articles :  Mosher,  "  Habitual  Postures  of  School 
Children,"  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  339-349;  McKenzie,  N.  E.  A.,  1898, 
pp.  939-948 ;  Parnell,  "  Medical  Inspection  in  School,"  N.  E.  A.,  1898, 
pp.  454-462  ;  Lemon,  "  Psychic  Effect  of  the  Weather,"  Am.  Jr.  Psych. , 
Vol.  VI,  pp.  277-279 ;  Dexter,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  512-522,  Ed.  Rev., 
Vol.  XIX,  pp.  160-168;  or  Monograph  Suppl.,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  II, 
No.  6. 

On  children's  movements,  the  studies  of  Curtis,  Ped.  Sent.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  90- 
106,  and  Lindley,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  491-517  ;  while  various 
tests  are  described  by  Seashore,  Ed.  Rev.,  VoL  XXII,  pp.  69-82,  and 
Hancock,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  291-340. 

On  the  practical  value  of  child  study  in  school  and  the  relations  of  teacher, 
pupils,  and  the  home,  see  Luckey,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  230-247 ;  Educ., 
Vol.  IV,  pp.  271-275;  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  340-347;  Van  Liew, 
N.  E.  A.,  1896,  pp.  864-872  ;  1897,  pp.  294-296 ;  Galbreath,  Jr.  Ped., 
Vol.  XI,  pp.  237-252 ;  Patrick,  N.  E.  A.,  1895,  pp.  906-914;  Whitney, 
Educ.,  Vol.  XV,  pp.  466-473 ;  Thayer,  Educ.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  68-75, 
142-148;  Kratz,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  413-418;  Bell,  Ped.  Sem., 
Vol.  VII,  pp.  492-525 ;  Baker,  Educ,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  264-268 ;  Skinner, 
Trans.  III.  Ch.  S.  Soc,  Vol.  II,  No.  2,  pp.  28-39;  RusseU,  Ped.  Sem., 
Vol.  II,  pp.  343-357- 

On  child  study  in  the  kindergarten,  see  Payne,  N.  E.  A .,  1897,  pp.  586-593 ; 
McKenzie,  iV.  E.  A.,  1893,  p.  637,  ff . ;  Nicholson,  Ch.  S.  Mo., 
Vol.  II,  pp.  675-684;  Bailey,  iV.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  541-546. 

On  child  study  in  secondary  schools,  see  Atkinson,  School  Review,  Vol.  V, 
pp.  642-683,  461-466;  Scudder,  School  Review,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  197-214; 
Austin,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  487-490. 

On  the  graded  system  and  individual  instruction,  see  F.  Burke,  N.  W.  Mo., 


CHILD  STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS 


357 


Vol.  VIII,  pp.  481-484;  C.  Frear  Burk,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  296- 
302 ;  Powell,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  290-305 ;  Search,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol. 
VII,  pp.  154-170;  Barnard,  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  163-170;  Kennedy, 
N.  E.  A.,  1901,  pp.  295-300,  and  the  N.  E.  A.  discussion,  1898,  pp. 
422-448. 
On  secretiveness  of  children,  read  C.  Frear  Burk,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  V,  p.  355, 
and  for  interesting  individual  studies,  see  Russell,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VI, 
pp.  431-442 ;  Stableton,  Diary  of  a  Western  Schoolmaster,  and  Ch.  S. 
Mo.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  451-458.  See  also  Triplett  on  "  Faults  of  Children," 
Fed.  Sem.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  200-238. 

Later  References 


Books 


Ayers 

Hollingworth 

Sinclair 

Bancroft 

Holmes,  W.  H. 

Segun 

Blan 

Hoag  and  Terman 

Shields 

Brown 

Kelly 

Smith 

Buckingham 

Keyes 

Starch  (i) 

Coover 

Kirkpatrick  (2  &  3) 

Stem 

Cornell 

McManis 

Stone 

Courtis 

Mitchell 

Terman 

Drummond 

Morgan,  B. 

Thorndike  (9  &  10) 

Freeman  (i  &  2) 

Norsworthy 

Whipple 

Goddard 

Pyle 

Whitney 

Groszmann 

Rowe 

Wilson 

Gulick  and  Ayers 

Sandiford 

Winch 

Healy  and  Femald 

Schmit 

Wooley 

Hardt  and  Town 

Scott,  Colon 

Yerkes 

HUyer 

Scripture 

Articles 

Bumham,  Wm.  H.     Suggestions  in  School  Hygiene.    Ped.  Sem.,  191 2, 

Vol.  19,  pp.  228-249. 
Burnham,  Wm.  H.    Hygiene  of  the  Teeth.    Ped.  Sem.,  1906,  Vol.  13, 

pp.   293-306. 
Burnham,  W.  H.    Arithmetic  and  School  Hygiene.    Ped.  Sem.,  191 1,  Vol. 

18,  pp.  54-73. 


358  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Dawson,  George  E.  A  Characterization  of  the  Prevailing  Defects  in 
Backward  Children  and  a  Method  of  Studying  Them.  Fed.  Sem., 
1909,  Vol.  16,  pp.  429-436. 

Dawson,  Jean.  Measuring  the  End-Product.  Fed.  Sem.,  1915,  Vol.  22, 
pp.  290-295. 

Fernald,  Guy  G.  An  Achievement  Test.  J.  Educal.  Fsych.,  191 2,  Vol.  3, 
PP-  331-336. 

Goddard,  H.  H.  Four  Hundred  Feeble-minded  Children  Classified  by  the 
Binet  Method.     Ped.  Sem.,  1910,  Vol.  17,  pp.  387-397. 

Goddard,  H.  H.  The  Application  of  Educational  Psychology  to  the  Prob- 
lems of  the  Special  Class.     J.  Educal.  Psych.,  1910,  Vol.  i,  pp.  521- 

551- 
Kuno,  Mrs.  E.  E.    How  a  Knowledge  of  the  Characteristics  of  the  Adoles- 
cent Boy  May  Aid  in  Directing  His  Conduct.    Ped.  Sem.,  1914,  Vol. 

21,  pp.  425-439- 
Lurton,  F.   E.    Reducing  Retardation.    Ped.  Sem.,  1913,  Vol.   20,  pp. 

86-88. 
Smith,  Theodate  L.    Obstinacy  and  Obedience.    Ped.  Sem.,  1905,  Vol. 

12,  pp.  27-54. 
Weintrob,  Joseph   and    Raleigh.      The    Influence    of    Environment    on 

Mental  AbiUty  as   Shown  by  the  Binet-Simon  Tests.    J.   Educal. 

Psych.,  191 2,  Vol.  3,  pp.  577-583- 


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3B 


37° 


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INDEX 


Ability,  mental,  and  maturity,  87  S. 

Abnormal  brain  states,  336  flE. 

Abnormalities,  25  S. 

Acquired  characteristics,  30. 

Adaptive  instincts,  68  ff. ;  development  of, 
160  ff. 

Adolescence,  3,  316. 

Esthetic  instinct,  71,  185,  228  S. 

Altruism,  150,  155  ff. 

Ambidexterity,  115. 

Amusement,  176  ff.,  178  ff. 

Ancestors,  15. 

Approbation,  150,  153  ff. 

Arrest  of  development,  40. 

Atavism,  17. 

Attention,  curiosity,  interest,  and,  193  ff. ; 
and  control  of  images,  287  ff. 

Auditory  expression,  240  ff. ;  factors  con- 
cerned, 240  ff. ;  stages  of  learning  oral 
language,  243  ff. ;  table  of  sentences  and 
words  used  by  M.,  252. 

Automatic  movements,  47,  102  ff. 

Bach,  13. 

Baldwin,  34. 

Barnes,  198. 

Bentley,  278. 

Binet  tests,  35,  88,  353. 

Bolton,  279. 

Book,  Prof.,  98. 

Bridgman,  Laura,  41. 

Brightness  and  maturity,  88  ff. 

Bryan,  44,  280. 

Burnett,  221. 

Calkins,  291. 

Cannon,  Dr.,  14. 

Cells,  18,  32,  40. 

Child  study,  origin  of,  2 ;  period  covered  by, 

2  ff. ;    problem  of,  8  ff.,  63;    applied  in 

school,  327  ff. 
Chorea,  338. 
Chums,  151,  217. 


Coeducation,  143. 

Coefficient,  of  growth,  34  ff . ;  of  vitality,  34  ff. 

Collecting  instinct,  223  ff. 

Commonality,  and  individuality,  314  ff. ; 
factors  producing,  314  ff. ;  how  developed, 
320  ff. 

Competition,  150,  154  ff.,  184. 

Concepts,  development  of,  294  ff. 

Conceptual  intelligence,  275  ff. 

Consciousness,  123,  206;  and  instinct,  55; 
of  infants,  107  ff. 

Constructive  instinct,  227  ff. 

Contrary  suggestion,  165. 

Coordination,  105. 

Curiosity,  69  ff.,  184;  development  of, 
192  ff. ;  function  of,  192  ff. ;  attention, 
interest  and,  193  ff.;  and  changes  with 
age,  196  ff. ;  and  education,  199  ff. 

Curtis,  278. 

Darwin,  141. 

Davis,  323. 

De  Busk,  35. 

Defective  classes,  26. 

Defects,  of  hearing,  346 ;  of  eye,  348. 

Determiners,  21  ff. 

Development,  8,  70,  97;  inner  and  outer 
factors  in,  7  ff. ;  generality  of  forces  of, 
10;  shock  and,  14;  growth  and,  39  ff. ; 
natural  order  of,  41  ff. ;  of  instincts,  63  ff. ; 
nurture  and,  73  ff. ;  early,  of  infants, 
102  ff. ;  of  voluntary  control,  108  ff. ; 
of  individualistic  instinct,  123  ff. ;  in- 
dividualism, the  basis  of  higher,  128  ff. ; 
of  racial  instinct,  139  ff. ;  of  social,  150  ff. ; 
of  adaptive  instincts,  160  ff. ;  of  imita- 
tion, 163  ff. ;  of  play,  175  ff. ;  of  curiosity, 
192  ff. ;  of  regulative  instincts,  204  ff. ; 
of  expressive  instinct,  239  ff. ;  of  intellect, 
272  ff. ;   of  resultant  instincts,  223  ff. 

Difference,  between  children  and  adults,  i 
ff. ;  in  individuals  of  same  spedes,  65  ff. 

Discrimination,  development  of,  277  ff. 


377 


378 


INDEX 


Dominance,  22. 

Dramatic  imitation,  162,  166  ff. 

Drawing,  262. 

Ductless  glands,  33. 

Edison,  289. 

Efficiency,  83  ff. 

Embryo,  18,  33. 

Emotions,  118  ff. 

Endowment,  native,  13  ff.,  47  ff-;  modi- 
fication of  native,  73  ff.,  192  ff. 

Environment,  4  ff-,  7  ff-,  U,  28,  65,  73,  74- 

Eugenics,  23  ff. 

Evolution  and  child  study,  2  ;  and  infancy,  6. 

Exercise,  36,  40,  41  ff. 

Expressive  instinct,  development  of,  239; 
origin,  nature  and  forms  of,  239;  audi- 
tory expression,  240  ff . ;  visual  language, 
253  ff.;   drawing,  262  ff. 

Fatigue,  in  learning,  96;    observation    of, 

335- 
Fear,  61,  130  ff.,  165. 
Feeble-minded,  276. 
Feeble-mindedness,  25  ff. 
Feeding  instinct,  66,  67,  73  ff.,  128. 
Feelings,   relations  of  instincts  to,   233  ff. ; 

relations  of  fundamental  stimuli  to,  236  ff. 
Fetichism,  140. 
Fighting  instinct,  135,  184. 
Froebel,  167. 

Galton,  24. 

Games,  178,  179,  183,  213. 

Garner,  240. 

Germ  cells,  17  ff. 

Gilbert,  277,  278. 

Gregariousness,  150  ff. 

Groos,  175. 

Growth,  general  phenomena  of,  32  ff.;  of 
children,  33  ff. ;  factors,  35  ff. ;  of  parts, 
37  ff.;  health  and,  38  ff. ;  and  develop- 
ment, 39  ff. ;  and  exercise,  41  ff. ;  tables 
of,  350  ff. 

Habits,  90  ff.,  274,  282,  288,  293,   330  ff. ; 

regular,    205   ff. ;     in  language,   learning, 

247  ff. 
Hale,  Horatio,  240. 
HaU,  G.  S.,  140,  296. 
Hall,  Supt.,  116. 
Hallucinations,  285  ff. 
Hancock,  44,  278. 
Hastings,  318. 


Health  and  growth,  38  ff. 

Hearing,  defects  of,  346  ff. 

Heredity,   10;    nature  of,   13  ff. ;    laws  of, 

15  ff. ;    theory  of,  17  ff. ;    social,  27  ff. ; 

and  growth,  35. 
Hertel,  38. 
Humor,  234  ff. 

Ideals,  210,  214,  216. 

Image,  development  of  power  to,  284  ff. 

Imaginary  companions,  168,  285. 

Imagination,  182,  183,  1S8;  growth  of  con- 
structive, 287  ff. ;  development  of  creative, 
289  ff. 

Imitation,  9,  232,  242 ;  characteristics  of  in 
children,  160  ff. ;  classification,  161  ff. ; 
reflex,  161,  163  ff. ;  spontaneous,  161  ff., 
164;  dramatic,  162,  166  ff. ;  voluntar>', 
162  ff.,  168  ff. ;  idealistic,  163,  170  ff. ; 
development,  163  ff. 

In-breeding,  16. 

Individualistic  instincts,  67  ff. ;  develop- 
ment of,  123  ff. ;  strength  of,  123  ff. ; 
prominence  in  the  young,  124  ff. ;  and 
motives,  126  ff. 

Individualism,  the  basis  of  higher  develop- 
ment, 128  ff. 

Individuality,  310  ff. ;  significance,  310  ff. ; 
biological  value  of,  311  ff . ;  commonality 
and,  312  ff. ;  factors  producing,  314  ff. ; 
time  of  greatest,  315  ff. ;  necessity  of 
recognizing,  319  ff. ;  how  developed, 
321  ff. ;   types  of,  321  ff. 

Infancy,  period  of,  3 ;  significance  of,  3  ff. ; 
advantages  of  long,  4  ff. ;   and  plasticity, 

sff. 

Instincts,  5,  7,  19,  47  ff.,  50  ff. ;  and  struc- 
ture, S3  ff. ;  and  consciousness,  55; 
usefulness  of,  59  ff. ;  fixed  and  indefinite, 
61 ;  transient  and  periodic,  62 ;  order  of 
development  of,  63  ff. ;  classification  of, 
66  ff . ;  individualistic,  66  ff. ;  racial,  67  ff. ; 
social,  68  ff. ;  adaptive,  68  ff. ;  regulative, 
70  ff. ;  and  learning,  74  ff. ;  relation  to 
mental  activities,  118  ff. ;  development 
of  individualistic,  123  ff. ;  development 
of  racial,  139  ff. ;  development  of  social, 
I  SO  ff . ;  development  of  adaptive,  1 60  ff. ; 
imitation,  160  ff.;  of  play,  I7S  ff-;  of 
regulative,  204  ff. ;  religious,  218  ff. ; 
various  resultant,  223  ff. ;  relation  to 
feelings,  233  ff. ;  development  of  expres- 
j     sive,  239  ff. 


INDEX 


37Q 


Intellect,  development  of,  272  ff. 

Intelligence,  4,  ig,  57,  58;  perceptual, 
273  fif. ;  representative,  274  ff. ;  con- 
ceptual, 275  ff. 

Interest,  curiosity  and,  193  ff. 

Jacobs,  279. 
James,  Prof.,  233. 
Jastrow,  279. 
Jealousy,  234. 
Jennings,  56. 
Jukes,  28. 

Kallikak,  25. 
Kohler,  198. 

Lancaster,  141,  145. 

Language,  forms  of,  239  ff. ;  auditory,  240  ff. ; 

stages  of  learning,  243  ff. ;   visual,  253  ff. 
Learning,  instincts  and,  74  ff. ;    modes  of, 

77  ff.;    physiology  of,  81  ff.;    psychology 

of,  83  ff. ;    maturity,  ability  and,  87  ff. ; 

fatigue  in,  96  ff. ;    to  walk,   115  ff. ;    oral 

language,  stages  of,  243  ft". 
Left  handedness,  114  ff. 
Leoroyd,  291. 
Lindley,  198. 
Loeb,  49,  56. 
Loyalty,  150,  155  ff. 

Maternal  impressions,  14. 

Maturity,  34,  87  ff.,  273,  276. 

Memory,  188;  development  of,  291  ff. 

Mendel,  20,  21. 

Mendelism,  20. 

Mental  states,  of  infant,  106  ff. ;  relation 
to  instincts,  118  ff. ;  development  of 
mental,  278  ff. ;  discipline,  96  ff. ;  grasp, 
279  ff.,  288  ff. 

Method  of  understanding,  79  ff. 

Meuman,  292. 

Migratory  instinct,  232. 

Modesty,  128. 

Moore,  Mrs.,  248. 

Moral  development,  preparatory  stage  of, 
204  ff. ;  training  during  the  preparatory 
stage  of,  205  ff. ;  transition  stage  of,  213  ff. 

Motives,  development  of  individualistic 
instinct  into,  126  ff. ;  appeal  to  the  high- 
est, 208  ff. ;   rank  of,  209  ff. 

Movement,  kinds  of,  47  ff. ;  automatic, 
102 ;  reflex,  102 ;  instinctive,  103  ff. ; 
increase  in  connections  of,  104  ff. ;  de- 
velopment of  voluntary  control  of,  108  ff. 


Native   endowments,    less  general,    13    ff. ; 

of  special  instincts,  47  ff. ;    modifications 

of,  73  ft. 
Native  reactions,  49  ff. 
Natvual  selection,  19,  312. 
Necessity,  as  a  factor  in  education,  185  ff.; 

in  language  learning,  242  ff. 
Nervous,  335  ff. 
Nervousness,  338  ff. 
Norms,  354. 
Nurture  and  development,  73  ff. 

Obedience,  211  ff. 

Optic  nerve,  8. 

Oral  language,  stage  of  learning,  243  ff. 

Outlines  for  observation,  341  ff. 

Paidology,  2. 

Partridge,  278. 

Parts,  proportion  of,  i. 

Perception,  development  of,  280  ff. 

Perceptual  intelligence,  273  ff. 

Phillips,  286. 

Physiological  norms,  53. 

Plasticity,  3,  5  ff. 

Plateaus  in  learning,  92  ff. 

Plato,  199. 

Play,  69,  175  ff. ;  theory  of,  175  ff. ;  work, 
amusement  and,  176  ff. ;  changes  with 
age  in  freedom  of,  179  ff. ;  changes  with 
age  in  powers  used,  181  ff. ;  as  regards 
instincts,  183  ff. ;  as  a  factor  in  education, 
185  ff. 

Porter,  318. 

Procrustes,  355. 

Pronunciation,  246  ff. 

Puberty,  33,  139,  141,  146,  153,  182, 184,  286. 

Pubescence,  213. 

Public  sentiment,  154,  217. 

Racial  instincts,  67  ff. ;  development  of, 
139  ff. ;  relation  to  other  instincts  and 
feelings,  141  ff. ;  right  development  of, 
142  ff. 

Reactions,  49 ;  two  views  of  native,  49  ff . 

Read,  methods  of  learning  to,  256  ff. 

Reasoning,  development  of,  296  ff. 

Recessiveness,  22. 

Records  and  reports,  343  ff. 

Reflex,  48;  imitation,  161. 

Regulative  instinct,  71  ff.;  development  or, 
204  ff. 

Religion,  142. 


38o 


INDEX 


Religious,    instincts,    218   ff. ;     training    in 

childhood,  21S  ll. ;  awakening,  220  ff. 
Reports  and  records,  343  ff. 
Representative  intelligence,  274  ff. 
Resultant  instincts,  223  ff. 
Reversion,  17. 
Rhythmic  instinct,  233  ff. 
Right  handedness,  114  ff. 
Rivalry,  154. 

Sex  hygiene,  147  ff. 

Shaw,  Prof.,  198. 

Situation  response  theory,  51  ff. 

Smedley,  279. 

Social,  143,  243. 

Sodal    instinct,    68    ff. ;     development    of, 

150  ff. ;  forms  of,  150  ff. 
Spaulding,  87. 
Special  reactions,  49  ff. 
Spell,  learning  to,  261  ff. 
Spencer,  175. 

Standards  in  the  study  of  children,  349  ff. 
Stuttering,  340  ff. 
St.  Vitus  dance,  338  ff. 
Suggestion,  332. 
Sympathy,  129,  150,  151  ff. 


Tennyson,  233. 

Tests,  in  study  of  children,  349  ff. 

Thomdike,  49. 

Training,  general  and  special,  93  ff. ;    moral, 

205  ff. ;   religious,  218  ff. 
Trial  and  success,  method  of,  78. 
Twins,  74. 

Unit  character,  21. 

Visual  language,  253  ff. ;  methods  of  learn- 
ing to  read,  256  ff. ;  learning  to  write, 
259  ff. ;   learning  to  spell,  261  ff. 

Vocabularies,  253. 

Voluntary  control,  108  ff. ;  imitations,  162  ff., 
i68ff. 

Vostrovsky,  198. 

Walk,  learning  to,  115  ff. 
Warner,  337. 
Weismann,  19,  27. 
Wolfe,  286. 
Wooley,  354. 
Work,  176. 

Write,  learning  to,  259  fi 
Writing,  44,  259  ff. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


Date  Due 

PRINTED  IN 

U.S.A.                  CAT 

NO.   24    161 

^ 

r 


WS105 

K59f 

1917 

Kirkpatrick,  Edvin  A 

Fundamentals  of  child  study  , . , 


WS105 

K59f 

I9IT 

Cirkpatrick,  Edwin  A 
Fundementals  of  child  study  . . . 


MEDICAL  SCIENCES  LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  IRVINE 

IRVINE,  CALIFORNIA  92664 


